Ancient Greece: From Mycenae to the Hellenistic Kingdoms
Minoan Civilization
Chalk: The cultural legacy of chalk was technology, shipping, ornate palaces, and writing on tablets until they were defeated.
Social and Political Organization
The first form of government was a confederation of small city-states. Each had a sovereign, with the city of Knossos aiming to unify the territory, with the rest becoming just the capital of the kingdom. From that moment, the political regime was formed by a king and officials. The seat of government was the Cretan palace, fulfilling various functions (ceremonial, commercial networks). Society was organized around the population and subdivided into three classes: the rich sector had more privileges (boat owners), then farmers and artisans, and lastly, slaves.
Economy
The economy was based on maritime commerce, agriculture, fishing, and the shipping industry. They had ample writing for business, and the art technique of stucco, which mimicked the effects of wood and marble.
Mycenae
Social and Political Organization
City-states were ruled by a king, or *anax*, who was assisted by a council of elders.
Society
The aristocracy had warrior privileges and large farms, followed by farmers and craftsmen, and then slaves.
Art
A difference between the Mycenaeans and Cretans was the Mycenaean warrior culture, which led to military scenes being painted.
Mycenaean Religion
They worshiped the Mother Goddess, who was the symbol of the Earth’s fecundity, and also the Lady of the Animals. Also, the bull gave rise to the legend of the Minotaur. With the development of Mycenaean culture, religious beliefs in female goddesses were replaced by male ones. Among the most popular were Dionysus, who was later personified as Hermes, Apollo, and Heracles.
Dark Ages
This period lasted from the 12th to the 8th century BC. There were clashes between different Greek populations, and there was little food. From this epoch emerged the *Odyssey* and the *Iliad*.
Emergence of the Polis
In its origins, the polis was ruled by nobles elected by restructuring. Refugees were eventually replaced by a more participatory form of government. This gave rise to the democratic polis. The polis was the dominance of public over private.
Colonization of the Mediterranean
The Greeks began to move toward the coast, where they founded colonies. This was the first stage. The second stage, with many problems, occurred because the population had grown and lacked food. They set up colonies on the coasts of Africa, Italy, France, and Spain. This led to growing maritime trade and cultural diffusion.
Athens
Political Organization
Athens began as a monarchy whose king was controlled by the Eupatridae. Due to abuses of power by the nobility, Draco was instructed to codify the laws and put them in writing. Solon carried out the second series of reforms: slavery was abolished, mortgages were canceled, and four groups were formed with different social and political rights according to their fortune. In 507, Cleisthenes was elected king and established a democracy. The city was divided into 10 tribes, dismantling aristocratic clans.
Hellenistic Empire
By the fourth century BC, almost all of the Near East was dominated by a single state: the Achaemenid Persian Empire. The territory was divided into different satrapies, each with a governor. Facing them across the Aegean Sea were the Greek *poleis*, which had been weakened after the Peloponnesian War. The Greeks were attacked by the Macedonian kingdom, which had no outlet to the sea, and the Aegean coast had been colonized by the Athenians.
Expansionist Policy of Philip II
During his reign, Philip wanted to turn his country into a great power. He strengthened his position internally and set up a standing army. With this, he began an expansive policy to achieve a landlocked state. Philip took advantage of the problems in the Greek *poleis* and achieved a great victory over the Athenians at the Battle of Chaeronea. He was able to dominate almost all of Greece. Thereafter, the Greek city-states became part of the League of Corinth, which Philip commanded. The purpose of this league was to attack Persia, but Philip was assassinated.
Formation of Alexander’s Empire
After the death of Philip, the Macedonian crown fell to his son, Alexander, who was 20 years old and wanted to conquer the greatest empire of his time.
Invasion of the Persian Empire
Alexander and his army crossed the Dardanelles and settled in Asia Minor. There, he won the Battle of Granicus and occupied coastal cities. His goal was to cut off all types of communication from the Persian fleet. Meanwhile, the Persian King Darius III met Alexander when he was attempting to enter Syria, but he was defeated at the Battle of Issus. Alexander continued to occupy the Syrian, Phoenician, and Mesopotamian coasts. He then went to Egypt, where he defeated the Persians. Alexander occupied Babylon and created his empire there. After his coronation as King of Persia, he pursued Darius III, but Darius was assassinated before Alexander could reach him. Alexander pursued the murderer, named Bessus, and conquered Bactria and Sogdiana. Alexander wanted to keep fighting, but his soldiers refused, and they returned. He settled in Babylon, where he ruled in an authoritarian manner.
Hellenistic Kingdoms
In 323, Alexander fell ill, and his potential heirs had died: a mentally retarded brother and an unborn child. For that reason, his generals divided the empire, then fought among themselves for territory. Three large kingdoms emerged:
- Macedonia: Including Greece, ruled by the Antigonid dynasty.
- Syria: Ruled by the Seleucid dynasty.
- Egypt: Ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty.
These were later joined by Bactria and Pergamum, and all these were the Hellenistic kingdoms.
Religion of Rome
Jesus of Nazareth preached charity, love of one’s neighbor, eternal life for the righteous and the dispossessed, and faith for all. Jesus, who claimed to be the Messiah, was crucified by the Roman authorities.
Persian Wars
The Persian Wars began in 490 BC when a powerful Persian army landed at Marathon. Thanks to their superior tactics and equipment, the men of Athens defeated the Persians. Athens then called on the Greeks to form the Panhellenic League.
The Second Persian War: In 485 BC, Darius I died and was succeeded by his son, Xerxes I, who prepared a second attack on Greece. The peoples of northern and central Greece surrendered to Xerxes.
The Third Persian War: The Athenians formed the Delian League in 477 BC, attacked the Persian fleet, and revolted, dominating the cities of Asia Minor with a decisive victory at Eurymedon. Causes: The Ionians, tired of Persian domination, sought help from Athens. Persia was ruled by Darius I when the Ionians, led by Miletus, advanced on the city of Sardis and razed it. Some time later, they were defeated by the Persians in a naval battle, and the Persian Wars began.
Peloponnesian War
The Spartans were aided by all the *poleis* around the Peloponnese except Argos. Athens was the city of Apollo, supported by the Ionians (Black Sea and Aegean). While the Spartans invaded Attica and Athens, the Athenian fleet ravaged the Peloponnese. Pericles hoped his war fleet would prevail, but the plague killed him and a large portion of the population. He was succeeded by Cleon. The Spartans sued for peace, but Cleon refused, seeing the weakness of Athens. Spartan revolts led to the Peace of Nicias for 50 years.