Ancient Greece: History, Society, and Culture
The Greek World
Greek civilization emerged in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the south of the Balkan Peninsula. It also extended to the Aegean and Ionian islands and the coasts of Asia Minor. The Mediterranean Greeks called this area Hellas (the Greek territory). The growth of Greek civilization was influenced by its physical environment. The territory of the Balkan Peninsula was divided into small, isolated valleys between mountains. Because of this, ancient Greece never constituted a unified state; each island and valley was an independent Greek city-state.
The unproductive land and limited livestock meant that agriculture was not well-developed. Consequently, the Greeks looked to the Mediterranean Sea as their main source of livelihood.
The history of ancient Greece is divided into three major periods: the Archaic era, the Classical era, and the Hellenistic period.
The Archaic Era: The Polis and Its Expansion
The Archaic Greeks were organized into poleis (plural of polis). The polis was a city-state with its own government, way of life, laws, and army. Some examples of poleis were Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Initially, the poleis were ruled by local chiefs, but gradually power shifted to the wealthiest citizens, a privileged minority known as the aristoi (meaning “the best”). Sparta was a prime example of a polis governed by an aristocracy.
Later, changes occurred in some poleis, leading to the emergence of democracy. In democratic city-states, citizens met in assemblies to make decisions and elect councils for public office. These assemblies discussed various subjects.
The Greek Expansion
Greece experienced a period of crisis. The population grew, but the land was not fertile enough to produce food for everyone. Many Greeks left their homeland and migrated to foreign lands in search of sustenance. These settlers founded colonies throughout the Mediterranean.
- Some settled on the coasts of Sicily and Italy.
- Others moved eastward and founded colonies on the Black Sea coast.
They created colonies near the coast to facilitate transport. They also sought locations with access to water and fertile land for building and farming, as well as for constructing temples to the gods.
Classical Times: Athens and Sparta
The Medical Wars
Persia, located on the Iranian plateau in Asia, began a period of territorial expansion. Years later, the Greek cities under Persian rule rebelled, and other Greek cities, led by Athens, came to their aid, confronting the Persians. This started the Medical Wars. The conflict unfolded in two stages:
- The First Medical War: Greek hoplite soldiers defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon.
- Ten years later, the Persian king Xerxes I invaded Greece in the Second Medical War. The Persians reached and sacked Athens but were defeated at the Battle of Salamis.
The Splendor of Athens
Because of its role in the war against Persia, Athens became the wealthiest and most influential polis. The Delian League was created, uniting the poleis to defend against Persian attacks. Athens dominated the League and made decisions for the other poleis. Athens experienced its most brilliant period, especially under the leadership of Pericles.
The Clash Between Athens and Sparta
The rise of Athens, both culturally and economically, threatened the interests of other important poleis, such as Sparta. The poleis were divided into two camps: supporters of Athens and supporters of Sparta. This situation led to the Peloponnesian War. The conflict had several phases and ended with Sparta’s victory, making it the most powerful polis.
Alexander the Great and Hellenism
Macedonia was a large kingdom north of Greece. Although not Greek, the Macedonians were influenced by Greek culture and spoke a similar language. Due to the wars between the Greek poleis, the region was weakened, a situation exploited by the Macedonian kings. Philip II of Macedon organized a powerful army and conquered Greek territories. When Philip was assassinated, his son, Alexander the Great, succeeded him.
In the conquered territories, Alexander founded many cities, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. In this way, Greek culture spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Alexander the Great died without an heir, and his generals divided his vast empire into several Hellenistic kingdoms.
The Greeks in the Iberian Peninsula
The Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula and came into contact with the Tartessians, a wealthy kingdom located in the south. This area was dominated by the Phoenicians, a people from the eastern Mediterranean. The Greeks founded their first colony on the Mediterranean coast of the peninsula, Emporion.
An Unequal Society
- Citizens: Participated in politics, enjoyed all rights, and were required to pay taxes.
- Non-Citizens: Could not participate in politics but had diverse situations:
- Foreigners: Free individuals who paid taxes and engaged in commerce and crafts but could not own land or marry citizens.
- Slaves: Not free; belonged to families for whom they worked. They were often prisoners of war or children of slaves.
- Women: Could be free or enslaved, but in either case, lacked rights. They could not participate in politics, vote, or attend public events. Women were always under the care of a male guardian and primarily engaged in household duties, leaving home only for special occasions like funerals, marriages, and religious ceremonies.
Economic Activities
- Crafts: The Greeks produced various goods, including ceramics, leather, and textiles.
- Trade: The most important economic activity. Small-scale trade was conducted by artisans selling their products directly. Wealthy and powerful merchants owned ships and traded throughout the Mediterranean. Silver drachmas were used as currency.
Cities
Cities had narrow, winding streets.
- The Agora: A public square where markets were held and citizens met.
- The Acropolis: A fortress located at the highest point of the city, easily defensible in times of war.
During the Hellenistic period, cities developed significantly, increasing in size. New cities like Alexandria and Pergamum were founded. There were also gymnasiums, theaters, and museums.
Greek Religion
Gods, Myths, and Heroes
The Greeks were polytheistic, believing in many gods who had human forms but were immortal. The most important gods resided on Mount Olympus. They also believed in heroes, such as Heracles, and fantastic creatures like Cyclops and Centaurs.
Key gods included Zeus (sky and lightning), Athena (wisdom), Ares (war), Hermes (trade), and Aphrodite (love).
Religious Worship
- Temples: The homes of the gods, attended by priests and priestesses.
- Homes: Each family had a small shrine to household gods and ancestors.
- Cities: Magistrates and priests directed public worship, including prayers, offerings, processions, and animal sacrifices.
- Sanctuaries: Sites for common religious rites, theatrical performances, and athletic competitions like the Olympic Games, held in Olympia.
Greek Art: Temples
Temples were built primarily of white marble, often painted in colors that have been lost over time.
- The Pronaos: The entrance hall.
- The Naos or Cella: The main chamber where statues of the deity were kept.
- The Opisthodomos: The rear chamber where offerings were stored.
Columns and a roof supported the temple structure.
Greek Architectural Orders
Greek architecture emphasized harmony, beauty, and proportion. There were three main orders:
- Doric: Fluted columns with a simple, square capital.
- Ionic: Fluted columns with a capital decorated with two spirals (volutes).
- Corinthian: Fluted columns with a capital decorated with acanthus leaves.
Greek Art: Sculpture
Most Greek statues and reliefs had a religious function, representing deities and heroes. Sculptors aimed to portray the ideal beauty of the human body, emphasizing harmonious proportions. The most common materials were marble and bronze, and sculptures were often painted in bright colors.
- Archaic Period: Sculptures were static and rigid, such as the kore (female statue).
- Classical Period: Sculptures became more realistic and dynamic, such as the Discobolus (discus thrower).
- Hellenistic Period: Sculptures were full of movement and expression, often with tormented faces, such as Laocoön and His Sons.