Ancient Greek Philosophers: Socrates, Protagoras, and Gorgias
Socrates
The Athenian Philosopher
Socrates, an Athenian philosopher, was the son of a sculptor and a midwife. He shunned politics and lived a life of poverty, dedicating himself to the pursuit of truth. Unlike the Sophists, he did not write books, charge for his teachings, or boast of wisdom. A friend’s inquiry to the Oracle of Delphi revealed that no man was wiser than Socrates. Socrates interpreted this as an affirmation that true wisdom lies in recognizing one’s own ignorance. Guided by his inner voice (daimon), he devoted his life to examining himself and others on matters of the soul, justice, and virtue, believing that “the unexamined life is not worth living.” Accused by Meleto of impiety and corrupting the youth, Socrates was sentenced to death.
Socratic Method and Doctrine
Socrates’ doctrine remains somewhat ambiguous. His philosophy emphasized collective search and dialogue, employing the Socratic method. This method involved two key elements: irony, the art of questioning to expose ignorance, and maieutics, guiding others to discover truth within themselves. This approach contrasted sharply with the Sophists’ individualism. Socrates challenged their conventions, paving the way for the search for essences. His doctrine can also be described as ethical intellectualism, where knowledge and virtue are intertwined. Ignorance, in this view, is the root of all evil.
Socratic Schools
Following Socrates’ death, several schools emerged, most notably Plato’s Academy. The Academy explored the scientific and psychological aspects of Socratic thought, developing the doctrine of ideas from Socrates’ search for definitions and concepts, drawing inspiration from Pythagoreanism to delve into the nature of the soul. Other Socratic schools focused on ethics and often opposed Platonic doctrines.
Protagoras and Gorgias: The Sophists
Protagoras of Abdera
Protagoras, the most prominent Sophist, authored “Truth,” a significant work in the theory of knowledge. His famous dictum, “Man is the measure of all things,” suggests a relativistic view of truth. He argued that human perception determines reality. Protagoras’ views on religion, expressed in his work “On the Gods,” led to accusations of blasphemy. He questioned the existence and nature of the gods, citing the limitations of human knowledge. His theory of knowledge and ethics emphasized reason as the divine element in humans, enabling the development of language, religion, and the state. He taught the importance of morality and law (aidos and dike), which, according to myth, were gifts from Zeus, fostering social trust and order.
Gorgias
Gorgias, another Sophist, focused on the art of persuasive oratory. He viewed rhetoric as the master of conviction, capable of swaying opinions on right and wrong. Unlike Protagoras, Gorgias did not aim to cultivate virtue but rather to teach the skill of oratory. He believed in the power of words (logos) to evoke emotions and influence beliefs. His objective was to achieve dominance over others through rhetoric. This emphasis on power foreshadowed the doctrine of the “law of the strongest,” where the weak are subjugated by the strong.