Ancient Greek Philosophy: Key Concepts and Thinkers

Posted on Oct 31, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics

Ancient Philosophy

Pre-Socratic Philosophy

For thousands of years, humans explained the world’s workings solely through religious beliefs. The shift towards interpreting nature from a human perspective, rather than relying on gods and priests, gave rise to fundamental philosophical problems, including the nature of the world (cosmology). This early stage of philosophy, known as Pre-Socratic philosophy, primarily focused on understanding nature. It sought a universal law that explained the consistency of events and phenomena: the same cause, under the same conditions, always produces the same effect. This principle is essential for science, rationality, and logic.

Representatives of Pre-Socratic philosophy include:

  • Thales of Miletus
  • Anaximander
  • Anaximenes

These philosophers attempted to identify the fundamental substance of nature, proposing elements like water, air, and chaos. Heraclitus posited a cosmic fire as the source of all things, while Parmenides and his disciple Zeno argued that true being must be unchanging and immobile, implying that the changing world of appearances is not truly real.

Later Pre-Socratics, such as Democritus, Anaxagoras, and Empedocles, continued in the tradition of Thales, developing realistic and materialistic views of nature. They believed that the world was composed of four fundamental elements. Greek philosophy established reason as a tool for seeking truth and laid the groundwork for modern science. It emerged as a response to mythology, offering reasoned arguments about the nature of reality, unlike the non-rational narratives of myths.

Main Problem of Philosophy

Many philosophical inquiries are influenced by the society and time in which they arise. However, some fundamental philosophical problems transcend their historical context, making them timeless. These include questions about:

  • The nature of being
  • The concept of change
  • The nature of the subject
  • The structure of meaning
  • The limits of knowledge

Relationship Between Faith and Reason

For St. Augustine, understanding the relationship between the human soul and God was paramount. He viewed faith and reason as complementary tools in the pursuit of truth. Faith is not irrational, nor does rational knowledge negate faith. St. Augustine proposed that faith initiates and concludes rational inquiry. It provides the initial impetus for investigating questions that might otherwise be overlooked (faith guides reason). Rational inquiry, in turn, leads back to a stronger, more informed faith by resolving doubts.

Plato: Happiness and Virtue

According to Plato, happiness is achieved through contemplating the essence of things, which he identified with the Forms or Ideas. This involves intellectual understanding, transcending the illusions of the senses. True happiness requires recognizing the divine order in the world, which serves as a model for human happiness. To achieve happiness, humans must strive to emulate the divine by practicing virtue. While humans can never fully become like God, they can approach divine likeness through wisdom and virtue. Plato believed that the gods care for those who seek righteousness. Religious devotion and virtue are paths to happiness because only the righteous can be truly good and happy.

Plato viewed virtue as knowledge of the true good, which is not relative but absolute. Without this absolute good, knowledge would be impossible. Eastern philosophies share similar ideas, emphasizing compassion as a primary virtue and detachment from worldly desires as a path to happiness.

Plato’s philosophy, like that of Socrates, identifies virtue with knowledge. The absence of virtue is not a corruption of human nature. Humans naturally seek what they perceive as good. However, without knowledge of the true good, they may mistake harmful things for good and act accordingly. Ignorance is the root of wrongdoing. Only those who understand the Form of the Good can act rightly, both in public and private life.

Plato describes four cardinal virtues:

  • Wisdom
  • Courage
  • Temperance
  • Justice

Each virtue corresponds to a specific part of the soul and a social class in Plato’s ideal city.

Plato: Two Types of Knowledge

Plato distinguishes between two types of knowledge:

  1. Sensory Knowledge: Acquired through the senses, this knowledge is limited to the material world and provides only opinions, not true understanding.
  2. Intellectual Knowledge: True knowledge attained through reason, allowing us to grasp the Forms or Ideas. This process is akin to remembering or recollecting innate knowledge.

Plato believed that the soul is accidentally joined to the body and that death is a liberation, allowing the virtuous soul to return to the realm of Forms. The Form of the Good is the ultimate source of virtue and perfection, purifying the soul. Philosophers, due to their wisdom, are best suited to govern society, guiding both rulers and workers.

Sensory knowledge involves perceiving objects through the senses, such as seeing images with the eyes. This allows us to store mental images with color, shape, and size. Conceptual knowledge, on the other hand, consists of abstract, universal representations. The key difference lies in their universality: sensory knowledge is particular, while conceptual knowledge is universal. For example, we can have a sensory image of our father, which is unique. But we also have the concept of “father,” which applies universally to all fathers. The concept of father lacks specific sensory qualities like color or size; it is abstract. The image of our father is particular, representing a specific individual. The concept of father, however, is universal. Therefore, the image is particular, and the concept is universal.

Relationship Between Faith and Reason (St. Augustine)

St. Augustine did not strictly separate faith and reason. He believed they work together to reveal truth, particularly Christian truth. His goal was to understand Christian doctrine, and he saw faith and reason collaborating in this endeavor:

  1. Reason helps individuals arrive at faith.
  2. Faith guides and illuminates reason.
  3. Reason clarifies the content of faith.

Augustine’s perspective stemmed from his conviction that truth is singular and found in Christianity. Two factors shaped his philosophy: the interaction between Christianity and philosophy, and the influence of Neo-Platonism.

Aristotle: The Political Animal

Aristotle considered humans to be “political animals” by nature. Only animals and gods can live in isolation. The natural drives for reproduction and self-preservation lead humans to live together, first in families, then in villages, and finally in city-states (with an optimal population size). The success of a city-state depends not only on shared goals but also on just laws that respect individual differences and educate citizens for responsible participation in a free society.

Aristotle identified three legitimate forms of government:

  • Monarchy (rule by one)
  • Aristocracy (rule by the best)
  • Republic (rule by many)

Their corrupt counterparts are tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy (by which Aristotle meant rule by the poor). The best form of government depends on the specific circumstances of a state, requiring empirical investigation of various historical forms of government. In principle, any form of government is good if the ruler prioritizes the well-being of the governed.

Aristotle: Virtue and Happiness

Aristotle, like Plato, believed that happiness is the ultimate goal of human life. He offered two perspectives on happiness:

  1. Individual happiness (what each person considers happiness)
  2. Universal happiness (what constitutes happiness for all humans)

Aristotle, following Plato, favored the second perspective, equating happiness with virtue. Virtue is expressed through activities that align with one’s nature. This implies a teleological view, where happiness is inherent in our nature and must be discovered by understanding what makes us unique. For humans, the distinctive activity is reason or contemplation. Therefore, happiness is achieved through intellectual activity. Since all humans share the same nature, happiness is essentially the same for everyone. However, Aristotle acknowledged that humans are not solely rational beings, so happiness is not purely intellectual. It also requires the fulfillment of basic needs, both material and moral.

Virtues

Aristotle defined virtues as habits or dispositions that enable us to act well by choosing the mean or moderate course of action. Virtue is always a mean between two extremes, one of excess and one of deficiency.

Aristotle distinguished between two types of virtues:

  • Moral Virtues: Examples include courage, temperance, and justice.
  • Intellectual Virtues: These include wisdom, understanding, and prudence.

Intellectual virtues are often overlooked, but Aristotle considered them essential. He was influenced by Socrates’ intellectualism and saw intellectual virtues as excellences in the exercise of reason. Prudence, or practical wisdom, helps us find the mean between extremes. Aristotle emphasized that virtue, along with justice, is superior to other qualities.