Ancient Iberia: Settlers, Colonizers, and Roman Conquest
The First Settlers: Iberia
The first settlers in Iberia arrived centuries before Christ. Various tribes from North Africa inhabited the small state, engaging in farming, grazing, and metalworking. Their cultures differed; those in contact with the coast were influenced by the Phoenicians and Greeks, developing advanced civilizations, while others lagged behind. They worshipped stars and spirits.
Tartessians
The Tartessians, of unknown origin, lived in the southern part of the peninsula. Around 500 BC, Carthage destroyed their city. They were involved in agriculture and maritime trade, possessing a flourishing culture and a language that remains undeciphered. They worshipped the moon and sun.
Celts
The Celts, of Indo-European origin, settled in the north and center of Iberia around the 9th century BC. They were primarily farmers and skilled metalworkers, creating intricate decorations. Polytheistic, they worshipped the sun, lightning, and other natural forces. The merging of Celts and Iberians resulted in the Celtiberians.
Colonizers
Colonizers arrived driven by economic interests, maintaining connections with their homelands.
Phoenicians
The Phoenicians, renowned sailors and traders, were drawn to the Iberian Peninsula by its abundance of copper, lead, and silver. They established settlements such as Gadir (Cádiz), Malacca (Málaga), and Onuba (Huelva).
Greeks
Greek traders founded Rhode (Roses), Mainake, and Emporion, though their presence was less extensive.
Carthaginians
The Carthaginians expanded their dominance over the Phoenician colonies. After the First Punic War with Rome, the Ebro River marked the boundary between their territories, with the north under Roman influence.
Roman Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
The Roman conquest spanned two centuries, from 218 BC to 19 BC. The Romans initially came to the peninsula to cut off Hannibal’s resources and manpower. By 206 BC, the southern and eastern regions were already under Roman control.
Resistance to Roman taxation sparked rebellions. The town of Ilerda and other settlements united under the leadership of Indibil and Mandonius of the Ilergetes, but were eventually defeated. After subjugating the Carthaginian territories, the Hispanic center and west revolted, suffering defeat in 154 BC. The Lusitanians also rebelled but were subdued. The remaining resistance retreated to Numantia, which, after years of siege, its inhabitants chose suicide over surrender.
Internal conflicts in Rome, such as the struggle between Marius and Sulla, led Sertorius, a supporter of Marius, to control much of the peninsula with the support of some Iberians and Romans until his assassination. Augustus sought to unify the peninsula, facing resistance from the Udinese and Astures. Agrippa eventually achieved this, ushering in the Pax Augusta.
Pax Augusta
The Pax Augusta was a period of peace that significantly influenced Hispania.
Religion
Augustus promoted traditional Roman religion and extended the cult of his person, associating it with the goddess Roma.
City Creation
The creation and revitalization of cities and colonies were central to Roman rule. Many cities were founded as rewards for veterans, such as Barcino (Barcelona) and Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza). These cities facilitated territorial control and established Roman institutions.
Language
Latin became essential for trade, political access, and social advancement.
Administrative and Political Organization
The administrative structure was based on dividing the territory into provinces and cities.
Politics
In 206 BC, Hispania was divided into Hispania Citerior (nearer) and Hispania Ulterior (farther). Augustus later divided it into Baetica, Lusitania, and Tarraconensis. Caracalla separated Gallaecia from Tarraconensis, and Diocletian later reunited Tarraconensis and created Carthaginensis.
Administration
Each province was governed by a governor with military, judicial, and tax authority, often a former consul or praetor. Cities had duumvirs representing the governor, judges, quaestors (responsible for taxes), and a citizen council (Curia) composed of decurions.
Hispanic Emperors
Several Roman emperors hailed from Hispania.
Trajan
Trajan, of Hispanic origin, greatly expanded the Roman Empire.
Hadrian
Hadrian, also of Hispanic origin, was a patron of the arts and reformed the administration of justice.
Theodosius
Theodosius, born in Cauca (Coca), was the last emperor to rule both the Eastern and Western halves of the Roman Empire.
Other notable Hispanic figures include the poets Lucan, Quintilian, Martial, and Prudentius.