Ancient Mesopotamia & Egypt: A Comparative Study
Mesopotamian Religion
Polytheism in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamians were polytheistic; they believed in many gods. Their gods were similar to human beings and had the same passions, although they were immortal. Temples served as the gods’ residences on Earth, some built on stepped pyramids called ziggurats.
Early Mesopotamian Education
The First Schools
Mesopotamia hosted the first schools, initially training scribes. Later, scholars, scientists, and theologians attended. Only male children from wealthy families received this education; there was no education for girls.
Mesopotamian Art and Architecture
Mesopotamian Architecture
Mesopotamian architecture and sculpture were exceptional. They built magnificent palaces (e.g., Khorsabad) and monumental gates (e.g., the Ishtar Gate). They invented the arch and the vault, using brick and adobe for construction.
Mesopotamian Sculpture
Sculptures included stone statues of kings, gods, animals, and bulls with human heads. Reliefs depicted religious scenes.
Ancient Egypt: A Powerful Civilization
The Pharaohs
Ancient Egypt’s origins date back to around 3100 BC when King Menes united territories along the Nile River. This civilization lasted roughly three thousand years, ending with Roman conquest in the first century BC. The pharaoh, an all-powerful figure, passed laws, ruled the country, owned most of the land, controlled trade, and led the armies. Considered divine and possessing magical powers (e.g., controlling the Nile’s flooding), the pharaoh’s body and gaze were sacrosanct.
Ancient Egyptian Society
The Elite
- Noblemen received land and treasures from the pharaoh and ruled provinces.
- Priests organized religious rituals and owned land.
- Scribes, able to read, write, and count, managed official documents.
The Majority of the Population
- Most people lived in mud-brick houses along the Nile.
- Peasants cultivated land belonging to the pharaoh, priests, or nobility.
- Craftsmen produced sculptures, pottery, papyrus (a type of paper), and linen.
- Merchants sold wood, minerals, and perfumes.
- Servants were free people working for a salary.
- Slaves, typically war prisoners, lacked rights and worked in construction, mines, or as soldiers.
The Role of Women
Egyptian women enjoyed more rights and freedom than many other women in antiquity. They could inherit and own property, and divorce was possible. Most women performed housework or worked as peasants or servants. While administrative roles were rare, some women, like Hatshepsut and Cleopatra, became pharaohs.
Writing and the First Civilizations
The Invention of Writing
Writing emerged in Mesopotamia over 5000 years ago, marking the end of prehistory. In growing villages and towns, writing enabled the recording of information about taxes, trade, and population.
The First Civilizations
The first great civilizations (Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China) appeared around 5000 years ago along major rivers with fertile lands. These rivers included:
- Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia)
- Nile (Egypt)
- Indus (India)
- Yellow and Blue (China)
These river civilizations shared characteristics:
- Powerful kings who made laws, led armies, and often held religious functions, served by civil servants and large armies.
- Hierarchical societies with a privileged minority owning most land and wealth, holding key positions. The majority of the population was much poorer.
- Large-scale building projects (palaces, temples, tombs, canals).
Mesopotamian Civilization
Mesopotamia: Land Between Rivers
Mesopotamia, meaning”between rivers” was located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It was the first civilization to use writing (5000 years ago). Despite its arid climate, irrigation canals enabled agricultural development. Its location made it a key trade region between Asia Minor, the Mediterranean, and Syria. Cuneiform writing, created using a reed to draw wedge-shaped signs on clay tablets, was essential for state organization (e.g., grain records) and recording stories of divinities and heroes, marking the beginning of written literature.
Periods of Mesopotamian History
Sumerian Period (3000 BC – 2330 BC)
Sumerians dominated the third millennium BC, with independent cities ruled by high priests.
Akkadian Empire (2330 BC – 1800 BC)
Around 2300 BC, Akkadian King Sargon I conquered Sumer and founded the Akkadian Empire.
Babylonian Empire (1800 BC – 1356 BC)
Babylon, ruled by Hammurabi, became dominant around 1800 BC.
Assyrian Empire (1356 BC – 612 BC)
Ashurbanipal, their last great king, conquered many territories.
Neo-Babylonian Empire (612 BC – 539 BC)
The Chaldeans ruled, with Nebuchadnezzar II as their most important king.
Mesopotamian Society
Privileged groups held most of the wealth and power:
- The aristocracy (king’s family and nobility) owned most land and held high government positions.
- Priests controlled religious rituals, owned land, and cooperated with the government.
- Civil servants (scribes) registered laws and commercial transactions.
Part of the population was free, while slaves had no rights:
- Peasants rented land from the king or temple, giving a portion of their harvest (barley, wheat, beans) in return, using simple ploughs.
- Craftsmen worked in workshops (weavers, carpenters, jewelers).
- Women were considered men’s property; if employed, their salary was half that of a man.
Ancient Egypt and the Nile
The Nile River
Ancient Egypt, one of history’s most important civilizations, emerged over 5000 years ago along the Nile River in northeast Africa. The fertile land near the Nile, annually flooded and replenished with fertile mud, supported its development. Egyptians built dams and canals to manage the water, and the Nile served as the primary means of communication, with sailing ships transporting people and goods. The Nile’s importance is reflected in its representation as a god in Egyptian mythology.
Chronology of the Kingdoms
Ancient Egypt’s history is divided into three main periods:
Old Kingdom (3100-2200 BC)
This 1000-year period saw the establishment of the basic social and state structures. The pharaoh was already a powerful, divine figure, and Memphis was the capital city. The Old Kingdom collapsed around 2200 BC.
Middle Kingdom (2050-1800 BC)
This 400-year period witnessed increased pharaonic power, the construction of new cities (Thebes became the capital), and southward expansion. A foreign invasion ended this period around 1800 BC.
New Kingdom (1580-1100 BC)
This 500-year period included the reigns of famous pharaohs (Thutmose I, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II). Egypt conquered Libya and Syria, and large palaces and temples were built. After 1100 BC, Egypt faced invasions by Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans.
Timeline Summary
- Old Kingdom: 3100-2200 BC
- First Intermediate Period: 2200-2050 BC
- Middle Kingdom: 2050-1800 BC
- Second Intermediate Period: 1800-1580 BC
- New Kingdom: 1580-1100 BC
- Foreign Rule: 1100-31 BC