Ancient Roman Oratory: A History and Analysis

Posted on Sep 21, 2024 in Latin

Ancient Roman Oratory

The First Speakers (3rd and 2nd Century BC)

Testimony of ancient Roman oratory includes funeral laudations and memorial speeches, which are sometimes not very realistic. This genre is considered an original literary manifestation of the Roman people. Elections and the Senate necessitated oratory to persuade the public. The Romans had a good dialectic and political system, which enabled oratory. The study of Greek eloquence was favored when Hellenism expanded and Latin rhetoric schools emerged (e.g., L. Platius Gallius). Some fragments of the first speakers are preserved, for example, by Cicero in the Brutus.

Notable Speakers:

  • Appius Claudius the Blind, M. Cornelius Cethego, Galba, Scipio Emiliano: Showed Greek influence on Roman oratory. Their style was fine and elegant, with a moral tone.
  • Cato the Elder: Great orator, enemy of Greek culture, considered the moral conscience of his time.
  • Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus: Brothers with Greek training, known for speeches defending social reforms. Representatives of what is called “People’s Oratory”.
  • Marcus Antonius: Adapted his words to the needs of each situation.
  • Lucius Licinius Crassus: Very extensive knowledge, rich style.
  • Other: Quintus Mucius Scaevola, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, Gaius Aurelius Cotta.

Oratory Schools in Rome

In Rome, problems worsened, culminating with the demise of the Republic. Speakers played a significant role in this atmosphere, and oratory was admired as an art form.

Schools:

  • Asian School: Characterized by longer periods, florid and exuberant expression, fast and fluid delivery, rich in imagery and pathos. Many studied in Rhodes. Quintus Hortensius was the most important speaker of this time until eclipsed by Cicero. His daughter Hortensia was also known for her eloquence.
  • Atticism: Opposing the Asian school, it favored a naked, hard, dry style without much adornment. Representatives include Gaius Licinius Calvus, who modeled himself on the Greek orator Lysias.

Cicero

Cicero received an education in philosophy, jurisprudence, and rhetoric in Rome and Greece. Intelligent and with solid moral principles, a Republican, he followed the Asian style but was heavily influenced by Molon of Rhodes. His style as a speaker was marked by an eclectic spirit. He was consul and discovered the famous conspiracy of Catiline, which earned him the title of pater patriae. His opponents were exiled as a result. When his speeches (Philippics) against Mark Antony were delivered, Antony ordered his execution. Cicero brought the Latin language to its highest perfection. His oratory is divided into several categories:

Speeches:

  • Judicial: Pronounced before the court as defense attorney or prosecutor (e.g., In Verrem, Pro Quinctius, Pro Roscio Amerino, Pro Lege Manilia, Pro Murena, Pro Archia).
  • Political: In Catilinam (written against Catiline), Philippicae (speeches against Mark Antony, modeled on Demosthenes’ speeches against Philip of Macedon).

Works on Rhetoric:

  • Brutus, De Oratore, Orator (written for the training of speakers).

Oratory After Cicero

Oratory in the imperial age began declining. Judicial oratory and eloquence survived.

  • Tacitus: Wrote Dialogus de Oratoribus, which presents a pessimistic and resigned view of oratory.
  • Pliny the Younger: Had the best teachers of his time, was consul, and delivered the Panegyricus Traiani (a speech praising Trajan as the reason for his elevation to the consulate).

Latin Grammar Notes

Infinitives

  • Present Active Infinitive: amare, habere (to love, to have)
  • Present Passive Infinitive: amari, haberi, mitti, capi (to be loved, to be held, to be sent, to be taken)
  • Perfect Active Infinitive: amavisse, habuisse (to have loved, to have had)
  • Perfect Passive Infinitive: amatum, -am, -um esse (to have been loved)
  • Future Active Infinitive: amaturum, -am, -um esse (to be going to love)
  • Future Passive Infinitive: amatum iri (to be about to be loved)
  • Passive Periphrastic Infinitive: amandum, -am, -um esse (to be loved, ought to be loved)

Participles

  • Present Active Participle: Present stem + -ns, -ntis (loving, holding)
  • Perfect Passive Participle: -tus, -a, -um (having been loved)
  • Future Active Participle: amaturus, -a, -um (going to love, about to love)
  • Future Passive Participle/Gerundive: -ndus, -a, -um (to be loved, must be loved, should be loved)

Participle Constructions

  • Ablative Absolute: A noun or pronoun and a participle in the ablative case, set off by commas.

Other Grammatical Notes

  • Object Complement: Equivalent to an object, functions as the direct object or indirect object.
  • Relative Clause: Equivalent to an adjective modifying the antecedent.
  • Adverbial Clause: Equivalent to an adverb, functions as an adverbial modifier.