Ancient Rome: From City-State to Empire and Its Legacy
Introduction
The history of ancient Rome is fascinating because of the culture developed and the progress achieved by this civilization. From a small town, it became one of the greatest empires of antiquity. The Romans inherited a number of cultural characteristics. Roman law, to this day, is present in Western culture, as well as Latin, which gave rise to English, French, Italian, and Spanish.
Rome’s Mythological Origins
The Romans explained the origin of their city through the myth of Romulus and Remus. According to Roman mythology, the twins were thrown into the river Tiber in Italy. Rescued by a she-wolf who nursed them, they were later raised by a couple of pastors. As adults, they returned to the town of Alba Longa and gained land to found a new city: Rome.
Origins of Rome: Historical Explanation and Roman Monarchy (753 BC to 509 BC)
According to historians, the founding of Rome is a mix of three peoples who were inhabiting the region of the Italian peninsula: Greeks, Etruscans, and Italiotes. They developed an economy based on agriculture and pastoral activities. The society at that time consisted of patricians (landed nobles) and commoners (merchants, artisans, and small farmers). The political system was a monarchy, since the city was ruled by a king of patrician origin.
The religion was polytheistic in this period, adopting gods similar to those of the Greeks, but with different names. In the arts, they stood out for painting frescoes, murals, and decorative carvings with Greek influences.
Roman Republic (509 BC to 27 BC)
During the Republican period, the Roman senate gained great political power. Senators, of patrician origin, took care of finances, administration, and foreign policy. The executive activities were conducted by the consuls and the tribunes of the people.
The creation of the tribunes of the people is linked to the struggles of common people for greater political participation and better living conditions.
In 367 BC, the Lex Licinia Sextia was approved, which guaranteed the participation of commoners in the Consulate (two consuls were elected: one patrician and one plebeian). This law also ended debt slavery (valid only for Roman citizens).
Formation and Expansion of the Roman Empire
After dominating the whole peninsula, the Romans departed for the conquest of other territories. With a well-prepared army and many resources, they defeated the Carthaginians, led by General Hannibal, in the Punic Wars (third century BC). This victory was very important because it ensured Roman supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea. The Romans came to call the Mediterranean Mare Nostrum.
After mastering Carthage, Rome extended its conquests, dominating Greece, Egypt, Macedonia, Gaul, Germania, Thrace, Syria, and Palestine.
With these achievements, the life and structure of Rome experienced significant changes. The Roman Empire became much more commercial than agricultural. Conquered people were enslaved or had to pay taxes to the empire. The provinces (regions controlled by Rome) yielded great resources to Rome. The capital of the Roman Empire enriched and changed the life of the Romans.
Principal Roman Emperors
Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), Tiberius (14-37), Caligula (37-41), Nero (54-68), Marcus Aurelius (161-180), Commodus (180-192).
Bread and Circus
With urban growth also came social problems for Rome. Slavery caused high unemployment in rural areas because many farmers lost their jobs. This mass of unemployed migrated to Roman cities in search of jobs and better living conditions. Fearful that a revolt of the unemployed might happen, the emperor created the policy of Panem et Circenses (Bread and Circus). This was to provide food and entertainment to the Romans. Almost every day, gladiator fights took place in arenas (the most famous was the Colosseum in Rome), where food was distributed. Thus, the poor forgot the problems of life, decreasing the chances of revolt.
Roman Culture
Roman culture was greatly influenced by Greek culture. The Romans “copied” many aspects of art, painting, and Greek architecture.
Roman holiday resorts spread along the major cities. They were places where senators and members of the Roman aristocracy would discuss politics and expand their personal relationships.
The Roman language was Latin, which, after a time, spread to the four corners of the empire, resulting, in the Middle Ages, in Portuguese, French, Italian, and Spanish.
Roman mythology represents ways of explaining facts that the Romans could not explain scientifically. This includes the origin of its people and the city that gave rise to the empire. The main Roman myths we can highlight are: Romulus and Remus and the abduction of Proserpina.
Roman Religion
The Romans were polytheistic; that is, they believed in many gods. A large part of the Roman gods were taken from the Greek pantheon, but the original names were changed. Many gods of the conquered regions were also incorporated into Roman cults. The gods were anthropomorphic; that is, they had characteristics (strengths and weaknesses) of human beings, and they were represented in human form. Besides the major gods, the Romans also worshiped the Lares and Penates (household gods). These gods were worshiped in houses and protected the family.
Major Roman gods: Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Mars, Diana, Venus, Ceres, and Bacchus.
Crisis and Decline of the Roman Empire
By the third century, the Roman Empire was undergoing a huge economic and political crisis. Corruption within the government and spending on luxury withdrew resources for investment in the Roman army. With the end of territorial gains, the number of slaves reduced, causing a drop in agricultural production. In the same proportion, the payment of taxes arising from the provinces decreased.
In crisis and with a weakened army, the borders were increasingly unprotected. Many soldiers, without salary, abandoned their military obligations.
Germanic peoples, treated as barbarians by the Romans, were forced to penetrate the northern borders of the empire. In the year 395, Emperor Theodosius resolved to divide the empire: the Western Roman Empire, with its capital in Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), with its capital in Constantinople.
In 476, the Western Roman Empire came to an end after the invasion of several barbarian peoples, among them Visigoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Suebi, Saxons, Ostrogoths, Huns, etc. It was the end of antiquity and the beginning of a new era called the Middle Ages.