Ancient Rome: From Republic to Empire and Its Legacy
1. Rome: The Empire City
Roman civilization developed around the Mediterranean, which the Romans called Mare Nostrum, Latin for “our sea”. The city of Rome was the cradle of this civilization. Situated on the River Tiber in the Italian Peninsula, the formation of the empire was a long process. Rome conquered all territories in the Italian Peninsula. This mixed territory had quite different peoples, but all were subject to Roman authority. With some peoples, varying degrees of covenants were established to exercise local autonomy. Their inhabitants were considered prisoners of war and, therefore, converted into slaves. The Romans also extended their dominion to Latin peoples, their laws, and their way of life. The Roman Empire was divided into provinces.
2. The Stages of History
According to legend, Rome was founded by the Etruscans and Latins. These two peoples lived in Italy alongside many others. Roman history encompassed three stages: the Monarchy, the Republic, and the Empire.
3. Monarchy
During the first centuries of its history, Rome was ruled by a king elected by representatives of the most important families, the patricians. The king was assisted by the Senate, an assembly formed by the heads of the main families. The Romans conquered the Etruscans, but the residents of Rome never fully accepted Etruscan authority. The last Etruscan king, Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown by a rebellion.
4. The Republic
After the expulsion of the Etruscans, a new form of government was established: the Republic.
- The Comitia: These were assemblies where Roman citizens met to vote on laws and elect magistrates.
- The Magistracies: There were different governmental positions. The magistrates were elected for one year. The most important were the consuls.
- The Senate: This was the most important institution.
The Republic faced two major problems: struggles between patricians and plebeians, and public wars.
Patricians and Plebeians
During the Republic, the people living in Rome did not have the same rights. Society was divided into two groups: a minority of patrician families, who were the wealthiest and most powerful and claimed to be descendants of the founders of the city, and the plebeians, who were the rest of the population. At first, only the patricians had political rights, such as being a judge or senator. Eventually, the plebeians achieved political rights and formed the tribunes, representatives who defended their interests in the state.
The Punic Wars
During the Republic, Rome conquered many territories. The wars between the Romans and Carthaginians, known as the Punic Wars, lasted over 100 years. The most important was the Second Punic War, which saw the confrontation between the Carthaginian general Hannibal and the Roman general Scipio Africanus.
5. The Crisis of the Republic
A period of conflict, corruption, and internal strife began in the Roman Republic. Several popular revolts occurred, including a slave revolt led by Spartacus. The military was increasing its power, and to stop the disorder, triumvirates were formed.
- The first triumvirate was formed by Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey.
- After Crassus’ death, three of Caesar’s supporters formed a second triumvirate: Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian.
6. The Rise of the Empire
Octavian received the title of Augustus, which meant “chosen by the gods”. Only then did he dare to start a new form of government: the Empire. Octavian Augustus was the first emperor of Rome. The emperor accumulated all powers: he presided over the Senate, was the supreme head of the army, and was the Pontifex Maximus. The Roman world reached its maximum splendor and power under emperors like Augustus himself, Claudius, and Marcus Aurelius.
7. The Crisis of the Third Century
At the beginning of the third century, the Roman Empire went into crisis. Social revolts, both by peasants and soldiers, spread anarchy. The Germans, whom the Romans called barbarians, took advantage of the weakness of the empire to invade its borders. The Persians also pressed on the empire.
8. The Recovery of the Fourth Century
With the coming to power of Emperor Diocletian, a period of reforms began to overcome the serious crisis of the empire. Emperor Constantine also introduced changes, moving the capital to Constantinople. The Germans gradually penetrated the territory.
9. The End of the Roman Empire
The emperors in the West were very weak and were unable to stop the Germans. The Eastern Empire remained for another thousand years and was renamed the Byzantine Empire.
1. An Unequal Society
The population was divided into two main groups:
- Citizens: They could participate in politics, be priests, initiate criminal proceedings, own property, and marry.
- Non-citizens: They lacked the above rights. They could be free or slaves.
Women
Women, regardless of wealth or place of origin, were never considered citizens. They were supervised by a male guardian. Despite these limitations, women could own property and participate in festivals and shows. The fundamental role of women was raising children, and some worked on farms or in shops as midwives.
2. A Prosperous Economy
Agriculture: This was a basic activity. Farmers grew wheat, vines, and olive trees, which were the main crops.
Handicrafts: These developed in cities where there were workshops.
Mining: Exploitation focused on gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, and mercury. The Romans established intense trade inside and outside the empire. Trade was made possible by the existence of a single currency, roads, and ports.
3. The Cities
Cities were the main centers of the Roman Empire. Rome was the imperial capital and the largest city. In its time of splendor, it may have had a million inhabitants. Roman cities almost always followed the same model. They had rectangular plans, with the cardo running north-south and the decumanus running east-west. Roman cities were equipped with all sorts of services, such as theaters, fountains, and sewers.
4. Great Builders and Engineers
The Romans were excellent builders. Proof of this is that many of their works have survived to this day. Roman buildings were very solid, partly due to the use of new materials: cement and concrete. They also extended the use of the arch, the vault, and the dome. Romans decorated the walls with paintings and covered the floors with mosaics.
Main Buildings
Large Roman architectural works always had a practical sense. They also tended to be monumental. Important buildings were located in the forum, such as basilicas and churches. Leisure buildings were numerous, including amphitheaters, theaters, circuses, and public baths. Memorials included triumphal arches and columns. Lines of communication included roads and bridges.
Daily Life
Food: People ate fruit, vegetables, bread, and fish. Dishes were seasoned with olive oil and wine.
Clothing: Women wore a gown and a veil, while men wore a stole, a robe, and leather shoes.
Work and Leisure: The hot springs had two areas: the arena for sports and exercises, and public toilets.
The Domus: These were the homes of the richest families in the cities. They had a shop, an entrance, a courtyard, a pond, a lounge, a dining room, and bedrooms.
The Insula: Most of the population lived in multi-story buildings called insulae.
The Villa: In the countryside, there were large farms called villas. Within them was a large mansion, mills, and presses.
5. Beliefs
Religion was very important. The Romans were polytheistic. Important deities were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The Romans built temples to perform rites. The Capitol was a temple dedicated to the Capitoline Triad. The Lares were the protectors of the home, the Penates were the deities of provisions, and the Manes were the spirits of ancestors. The Romans were very tolerant and adopted all the Greek gods, changing their names. Priests were responsible for religious worship.
6. Christianity
Christianity taught that:
- There is only one God, and all people are equal before Him.
- Human beings must love and forgive.
- Those who behave according to this ideal will win eternal life after death.
Persecution
After the death of Jesus, the apostles continued to spread his message, including the apostle Paul of Tarsus. The first Christian communities gathered in churches, had bishops, and buried their dead in catacombs.
Christianity as the Official Religion
The situation of Christians changed when Emperor Constantine, who came from a Christian family, granted them religious freedom and allowed them to perform their rites publicly. Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity the only official religion of the Roman Empire. The Pope was the Bishop of Rome. The bishops met together in councils.
1. Iberians, Celts, and Settlers
The Iberian Peninsula was dominated by two distinct cultures: the Celtic and the Iberian. There were also Phoenician and Greek colonies along the south and east coasts.
The Iberians: They extended through the south and east of the peninsula. They maintained relations with the Phoenician and Greek colonists.
The Celts: They had entered the peninsula through the Pyrenees and settled on the plateau and the Atlantic coast, where they coexisted with other tribes, such as the Basques.
3. Carthaginians and Romans
The expansion of Rome’s power clashed with that of the Carthaginians, who also aspired to dominate the Mediterranean. Romans and Carthaginians fought in the Punic Wars.
4. The Roman Conquest of Hispania
The conquest took place in three phases:
- In the first phase, the Romans conquered the Mediterranean coasts and the Ebro and Guadalquivir valleys.
- In the second phase, they conquered most of the plateau, facing resistance from the Lusitanians and Celtiberians.
- In the third phase, the conquest of the northern peninsulas was undertaken. The Galicians, Asturians, and Cantabrians were defeated by Octavian Augustus.
6. Romanization
- Latin: Hispanic intellectuals expressed themselves in Latin, such as the philosopher Seneca.
- Laws: Roman law, the basis of current law, was implemented.
- Religion: Although indigenous cults persisted, most people in Hispania worshipped the Roman gods.
- Cities: They were centers of expansion of Roman lifestyle and culture. Roads were built.
- Art: It flourished. Notable examples include the theaters of Sagunto and Mérida and the amphitheater of Tarragona.