Ancient Rome: History, Architecture, and Society

Posted on Oct 6, 2024 in History

Ancient Rome: A Historical Overview

Monarchy (753-509 BC)

This period is characterized by the mythical foundation of Rome by Romulus and Remus, who were suckled by a wolf. The Romans of the classical period knew it was a legend but liked to recall that myth. On the Palatine Hill, one of the seven hills of Rome, Romulus drew a plow around the city limits. Although it remains a myth, sometimes there is some truth camouflaged in these stories because archaeologists have found remains of huts built in that area between 800 and 700 BC.

One of the neighboring towns of Rome, the Etruscans, exerted a powerful influence over it, enriching it and opening it to foreign trade. Goods began to arrive from Greece and the East, and Rome quickly became the largest city in central Italy.

Rome belonged to the region of Lazio. The increasingly important role of this city made it stand out from the rest of the population.

However, the hegemony of Rome did not occur until 338 BC, under the Republic, after a sharp confrontation with the rest of the people of Latium.

One of the most significant events of this era is the story of the Sabines and their union with the Roman people as a result of the rape of the Sabines.

We should also mention the saga of the Tarquins, from the area of Etruria, who marked the beginning of the reign of the Etruscan people in Rome. These kings built temples and stone houses and constructed the sewer system.

Nevertheless, the Romans remembered the monarchy as a period of tyranny, especially after the reign of Tarquinius Superbus. After his deposition, following a rebellion carried out by the patricians, the Republic began.

Republic (509 BC – 29 BC)

The Republic was ruled by a consul for a year. The consul was strictly controlled during his term by a council of elders or council of the Senate, and also could not be reelected.

The Roman population was composed of two classes: patricians, descended from the ancient Romans, and commoners (plebeians), composed of foreigners, slaves, or captives from conquered peoples. The plebeians began to claim their rights because they could not marry patricians, were not represented in justice, and had no knowledge of the laws. Over time, commoners were able to be represented by judges and gradually gained more rights, thanks to the presence of the tribune of the plebs.

The patricians and the plebs gathered in assemblies called elections, excluding women. Then there was the Senate, which held the most power, consisting of 300 members of the aristocracy, often former consuls, or in any case, men endowed with great authority.

Roman society was governed by a military order, and the beginning of the year started with the month of March, named after Mars, the god of War. The centuriate assembly was the most important assembly of all, organized into centuries. Every five years, the censors, who were special judges, conducted a census and grouped all adult citizens into centuries, divided into five classes, depending on the fortunes of each and their civic and moral virtues.

In 265 BC, the First Punic War, the conflict between Rome and Carthage, began. In 220 BC, the Second Punic War developed. By 150 BC, Rome had already incorporated Carthage, Greece, and Macedonia and began to expand in the East. By 130 BC, the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was underway in different phases. Resistance from Numantia finished the process of conquest in Spain.

Meanwhile, life in Rome had changed since the Republic was established, generating a chaotic situation where people lived crowded together, nobles became richer, and the Senate increasingly sought unlimited power. From 130 BC until the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, a series of civil wars and revolutions in Rome culminated in a new system of government: the Empire.

Empire Period (29 BC – 410 AD)

Octavian was appointed princeps by the Senate and given the title of imperator.

In addition, he was given command of all armies and the authority of the proconsul. Octavian later invented a new title, Augustus, which meant “the venerable,” which from then on became his name.

Octavian organized what was called the Principate or the Early Empire.

• He had proconsular power, i.e., command of the armies of the provinces or the armed forces, in addition to the tribune’s power of leadership of the people.
• His person was inviolable and sacred, and to harm him was to harm the people.
• He was Pontifex Maximus, meaning he had authority over all religious matters.
• He held the power and direction of the censor of morals: he made the list of knights and citizens, assigning everyone a job.
• He had the right to convene the Senate and the people, assessing contributions and expenses. He also possessed the power to prosecute and issue decrees or laws.
• The government was still called a republic under Octavian, but with the difference that before, the powers were divided among the magistrates, and Octavian, as emperor, held them all. Instead of keeping them for a year, he did so for life.
• Finally, it was agreed that the emperor would choose his successor, but one who had been approved by the senators.

In the East, it was the custom to deify kings after their death, and this spread to Rome, especially for generals and emperors. Upon the death of these figures, temples were built, and priests were assigned. Initially, they were even appointed a month in their honor, July for Caesar and August for Augustus. This custom was abolished by Augustus’s successor, Tiberius.

The Roman Empire under the reign of Augustus was a vast expanse, with its borders to the north at the English Channel, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Black Sea; to the east, the Euphrates and the Arabian Desert; to the south, the Sahara Desert; and to the west, the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea at that time was called Mare Nostrum (“Our Sea”), and the Romans were right to call it that because of their political and military control of the area.

The Empire was divided into provinces. Augustus ruled those that were subject to invasions and in need of strict control, and the provinces not under any risk of war were governed by the Senate.

Prosecutors were responsible for collecting and setting taxes. Augustus also created a tax on slaves, a one-twentieth tax on inheritances, and taxes to support the armies, i.e., a military fund.

For most of Augustus’s reign, there was peace and prosperity. The Empire was enriched, and Rome became an economic power and the center of the world. Merchant ships from all over the Empire came by the Tiber River. Shipments of wheat arrived from Sicily and Egypt, and the prosperous city of Gades (Cadiz) provided purple wool, much coveted in those days. Marseille provided bacon and salted beef. Shipments of wine, honey, birds, peacocks, cranes, and all kinds of exotic delicacies came from some Greek cities, including Lesbos. The cities of Phrygia and Paros exported marble to Rome for monuments. In summary, we can say that during the period of Augustus, Rome flourished in every way, thanks to his moderation and prudence, a very common trait among Roman rulers. He was humble but at the same time inspired noble grandeur with his simple ways and his humanity. He has passed into history as the ideal emperor. He was then taken as a model for other rulers. Augustus is one of the best examples of the positive influence a man in high office can exert.

Other emperors were:

• Claudius, under whom Rome experienced another moment of glory.
• Vespasian, with whom another series of emperors began, the Flavians.
• His son Titus, of great kindness, exerted good governance.

The Flavian dynasty was succeeded by the Antonine dynasty, consisting of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Under the command of the Antonines—especially the last three, who stood out for their kindness, tolerance, and magnificence—Rome reached its zenith, and there was peace within the Empire.

After the death of Marcus Aurelius, Commodus reigned in 180 AD and was characterized by cruelty.

In the late 3rd century AD, Rome was no longer the center of the imperial court, but it retained a symbolic character. During this stage, the central power of Rome moved to other places for strategic and administrative interests. Alongside this came a new power center: Constantinople, breaking up the unity of the Empire and allowing different cities to gain prestige, such as Trier, Milan, and Nicomedia.

The growing presence of barbarians and their continuous raids and looting, the rigid social classes, trade hampered by wars and the difficulty of movement of people and goods, the conversion of the rural world into an urban one, and the municipal crisis led to the end of the Western Roman Empire.

Roman Domestic Architecture: The Domus

Roman houses could be of various types: the insulae, apartment buildings made with poor materials that used to catch fire and collapse easily; the domus, which was the traditional patrician house; villas, houses in the countryside; and the palace, which was a huge and ostentatious residence within the city.

We will focus on the domus, a house typical of the Mediterranean style, closed to the outside and with rooms opening onto a patio. The best houses were usually painted in shades of red and the floor covered with mosaics. Parts of a domus include:

1. Atrium: The courtyard was originally a kind of vestibule but soon became the center of family life.
2. Impluvium: A pond located in the atrium. The gods were worshipped here, and wax images of ancestors were kept. The whole area was regarded as a sanctuary.
3. Compluvium: An opening in the roof that allowed in light and collected rainwater in the impluvium.
4. Triclinium: Dining room.
5. Tablinum: This was the main room, which served to keep the family archives or receive important guests. In the absence of a triclinium, it served as a dining room.
6. Peristyle: Soon, a second courtyard of Greek influence was added to the domus. It was more pleasant, with plants, fountains, gardens, and a portico with columns.
7. Summer Triclinium: A dining room used in the summer.
8. Bathrooms: The richest houses had small private baths.
9. Cubicula: Bedrooms and rooms for the service. Sometimes near the entrance were two separate rooms (tabernae) serving as shops and storage.

The interior of the house was decorated with Roman murals on the walls and mosaic floors. The themes were often geometric or allegorical. Among these are those that represent the universe or the months of the year. Mosaic work, known in Greece, was developed in Rome with different techniques:

• Opus tessellatum: Made with cubes of marble of different colors.
• Opus signinum: Made with pebbles and pieces of glazed earthenware.
• Opus sectile: Made with large pieces of marble perfectly fitted together.

Characteristics of Roman Architecture

Roman architecture showed signs of genius in the field of construction and included many new features, both in the treatment of the wall and in the elevations and roofs.

From the Etruscans, the Romans took the thickness of the walls, the arch, and the vault.

The union of the wall and the arch played a prominent role, as it allowed weight to be distributed rationally using buttresses.

The construction of the dome was made possible by the invention of concrete (opus caementicium), which allowed the arches to rest directly on the vaults.

Another important achievement was the groin vault, used in the baths.

Its use reduced the weight of the barrel vault, distributing the weight more evenly.

On the other hand, it made it possible to open holes, allowing for better-lit spaces. Daylight was used extensively.

Types of Walls:

• Opus incertum
• Opus latericium
• Opus quadratum
• Opus reticulatum
• Opus spicatum

Roman Sculpture

Rome made two essential contributions in the field of sculpture: the portrait and the descriptive relief. The first part of an evolution and the origin of realism found in Etruscan funerary masks influenced it, as well as the Greek portrait.

Imagines maiorum were kept in houses. These were masks taken from the dead and served as a reminder of them.

They were kept with the titulus, which was the cursus honorum or public life of the deceased. Therefore, the face had to be a reflection of his life.

During the Republican era, portrait sculptors precisely reflected the past, showing the intensity of life through the furrows or wrinkles of the face, predominantly in portraits of older people. There are many examples that have come down to us from this conflict period, for example, Caesar, Sulla, or Pompey.

From the first quarter of the 1st century AD, two trends appear in portraiture: the Latinizing current, where the strength of the Republican portrait is maintained, and the Hellenizing current, which is more idealized.

In the case of reliefs, Roman art shone, if we look closely at the works that have survived, such as the Ara Pacis and Trajan’s Column, among other examples. In the latter, the narrative, the treatment of space, rhythm, and composition make it an exceptional work.