Ancient Rome: History, Art, and Architecture
Historic References of Ancient Rome
In the eighth century BC, the Italian peninsula was inhabited by various peoples: the Ligurians, the Umbrians, the Etruscans, the Samnites, the Sabines, and the Latins. The latter founded Rome in 753 BC, which became the capital of the empire. Its creation is attributed to the brothers Romulus and Remus.
The empire is divided into three major periods:
- 753 BC – Monarchy: A stage governed by kings. The Etruscans inhabited the area corresponding to present-day Tuscany and left a fundamental artistic mark on the future of Roman art.
- 509-31 BC – Republic: A stage marked by crisis after the expulsion of the Etruscans and defeats in the Punic Wars against powerful armies like those of Carthage.
- 31 BC – 476 AD – Empire: During this period, a new political system led by an emperor was established. In the year 476, the last Western Roman emperor was defeated by the Ostrogoths. The culture and civilization were influenced by the Etruscans and Greeks. From 391 onwards, Christian beliefs gradually replaced the traditional Roman religion.
Artistic Evolution
Roman art underwent a distinct artistic evolution in two periods:
- Republic (3rd-1st centuries BC): Marked by the influence of Greek cultural forms.
- Imperial Centuries (1st-5th centuries AD): Distinguished by a late Roman art style.
Etruscan Architecture
Etruscan architecture is essential for understanding the evolution of Western architecture, particularly the use of the arch and the vault. These two architectural elements of Mesopotamian origin came through Etruscan art and became the basis of Roman architectural techniques.
Few Etruscan temples remain today, apart from their stone foundations. These buildings were built with a square floor plan, resting on a high podium, and featured a portico with columns. The facades were specifically designed as entrances, enhanced by a deep colonnaded portico that provided access. The architectural order was arquitravated and represents an Etruscan innovation: columns with smooth shafts, geometric bases, and capitals, along with an entablature consisting of an architrave, a simple frieze without linen or triglyphs, metopes, and a cornice.
General Characteristics of Roman Art and Culture
Roman art and culture were eclectic, assimilating many and varied influences, especially Etruscan, Greek, and Hellenistic. Roman architecture includes the systematic use of the arch and vault, elements of Eastern origin adopted through Etruscan architecture. The Romans used traditional Greek orders and added the Etruscan Doric order and the Composite order, an original creation of Roman art consisting of mixed Ionic and Corinthian elements.
Urbanism and Architecture
Architecture and planning were the two arts that best expressed the character of Rome and were also the most important instruments of Romanization of the empire. All new city construction applied a geometric grid system, following the layout of primitive military camps. The city was divided into four separate parcels by two main streets: the north-south cardo and the east-west decumanus. At their intersection, the forum was built, a place where important public buildings were erected, following the model of the old Greek agora.
Architectural Types
Roman buildings can be differentiated according to whether they are private or public.
Private Buildings:
- Insulae (apartment buildings)
- Domus (houses)
- Villas and palaces outside the cities
Public Buildings:
- Religious: Temples
- Civilian:
- Monuments for public functions: theaters, amphitheaters, circuses
- Monuments of character: the Basilica, a rectangular building divided into three naves covered with a barrel vault and hemispherical funds, intended for trade, administration of justice, and various public events (e.g., the Basilica of the Roman Forum)
- Commemorative monuments: commemorative columns and triumphal arches representing the power of the empire and its conquests (e.g., the Arch of Titus in Rome and the Arch of Septimius Severus, Trajan’s Column)
- Engineering monuments: aqueducts, bridges, and roads
Materials
The Romans also used new building materials. The most important was opus caementicium, a mixture of small stones, gravel, sand, lime, and water, which is equivalent to concrete. This allowed them to cover huge areas with large arches and vaults.