Applied Linguistics: A Comprehensive Guide to Language Learning and Teaching
Applied Linguistics: A Comprehensive Guide to Language Learning and Teaching
Definition: Applied Linguistics is the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching. It is the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems. Applied linguistics uses linguistics theory as well as information from psychology, sociology, and anthropology in order to develop its own models of language use, and uses this theory in practical areas. (the Longman’s dictionary). The focus of AL is on trying to resolve language-based problems that people find in the real world. (Grabe)
History: The origins of AL could be placed in 1948 with the first issue of Language Learning: A Journal of AL. 1950s: AL application of structural and functional linguistics to language teaching and L1 literacy. After the 2nd WW, there was a need to learn foreign languages. Foundation of the Center for AL (CAL) in Washington D.C. 1960s: AL started to be concerned about language assessment, language policies, and language acquisition. 1970s: broadening of the field to incorporate other areas related to problems in the real world related to language: literacy, multilingualism, language minority rights, teaching training. 1980s: consolidation of AL as something more than a language teaching and learning, including: language assessment, language policy and planning, language use in professional settings, translation, lexicography, multilingualism, language & technology, corpus linguistics. End of 1980s: AL includes many subfields, including: psychology, education, anthropology, sociology, policy studies. 1982: AESLA (Asociación Española de LA).
The meaning of “applied”: “application” as a scientific activity that mediates between theory and practitioners (Elliasson).
Linguistic Applied: The assumption is that the problem can be reformulated by the direct and unilateral application of concepts and terms deriving from linguistics enquiry itself.
AL: The ideas and findings from L can only be made relevant in reference to other perceptions that define the context of the problem.
The 2 main orientations of AL: 1-applications: the use of linguistic knowledge to solve problems of a linguistic nature. 2-intersections: relationship between linguistics and other related areas (psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics).
LANGUAGE PROCESSING
Psycholinguistics: The study of the mind through the use of language. Different areas in psycholinguistics research involve: language acquisition and loss, language production and comprehension. Speech errors: Oral production: speaking is a complex skill in which many different processes are involved: conceptualization, articulation, and monitoring for ex. We are usually unaware of this complexity because processes are automatized and little attention is needed in most cases. We only realize about this complexity when something goes wrong. Mental lexicon: differentiation between lexical representation and access. Access in terms of activation: when trying to access a particular word, activation of similar words spread out. Producing words involves not just selection but also inhibition of similar words. Storing words: language involves communicating through words. Speakers possess large vocabularies (or lexicon), some larger than others, some involving more associations for specific words than others. In the lexical entries of our mental dictionaries, we can differentiate between content words and function words.
Lexical access: finding words involves recognition or matching and access. Words are usually grouped together in our minds, forming lexical sets. This phenomenon is called tip of the tongue state: difficulty in accessing one word, but we know the word exists. Activation: when we try to access a specific word, other words similar in form and meaning are also activated.
Level’s model: 5 principal components: conceptualizer, formulator, articulator, acoustic-phonetic processor (audition), parser (speech comprehension system). 3 knowledge stores: discourse models and situational & encyclopedic knowledge, lexicon, syllabary.
1. Conceptualization of the message: decisions need to be taken at the: a) pragmatic level (politeness),
b) content knowledge-mental activation of concepts (word/syntactic level), usually these aspects are negotiated through interaction. We have 2 main processes in CONCEPTUALIZATION: 1. Macroplanning: elaboration of communicative intention and selection of info to be encoded and how it’s going to be conveyed. 2. Microplanning: giving propositional content to the message, argument structure, thematic roles; perspective. The output of the conceptualizer is the preverbal message and has the necessary info to convert meaning into language.
FORMULATION: Selection of lemmas that best fit preverbal message and lexemes. Grammatical encoding: formation of rough syntactic frame.
ARTICULATION: internal speech generated by the formulator is transformed into overt speech by articulator. It is a relatively automatic process and the utterance that we have formulated becomes actual speech thanks to our speech organs.
MONITORING: we not only communicate with others, but also with ourselves, we monitor our production in L1. There are 3 monitor loops, according to Levelt’s model: comparison of preverbal message with original intentions of speaker, monitoring of phonetic plan, and overt monitoring (after overt speech has been produced and perceived by acoustic-phonetic processor.
L1/L2 PRODUCTION COMPARED: most aspects of L2 production can be explained by models of L1 production. The differences are: as opposed to L1 knowledge, L2 knowledge is incomplete; certain aspects of processing in the L2 production system lack automaticity; there are traces of the L1 in the L2.
The mental lexicon: the case of bilinguals: difference between lexical representation and lexical access/processing.
1. Lexical representation: different versions of the 3-component model: word association, concept mediation, developmental model, revised hierarchical or asymmetry model, conceptual feature model. Developmental model: (Kroll & de Groot, Potter) as learners develop their proficiency in the L2, they move from word mediation to concept mediation.
Potter tested word-association and concept-mediation models for learners of different proficiency levels and found out that there are no differences in response time between groups for different tasks. Kroll and Curley: included beginners and proficient bilinguals and the beginners performed better in translation. Asymmetry model: (Kroll) L2 and L1 translation should be faster than L1 to L2 because the connections are stronger. Some researchers have shown the connection between L1 and L2 varies depending on the semantic nature of words. Concrete words are more integrated across a bilingual’s 2 languages. Other features that affect the strength of connections L1 L2 words: a) cognate status: cognates more integrated across languages and more likely to have direct concept mediation. b) word frequency: more frequent words stored in concept-mediation vs. less frequent word association. c) amount of practice: more practice, more likelihood of concept mediation. d) L2 learning context: immersion would encourage more concept mediation vs. classroom setting more reliance on L1. Conceptual feature model (Kroll, De Groot).
2. Lexical access/processing: is formed by selective access (input processed by the appropriate language system) and non-selective access (both language systems are accessed in production and comprehension).
L1 vs. L2 oral production Some differences in terms of: Mental lexicon (L1 and L2 words: storage and access) (we’ve just seen this) and Monitoring
Monitoring L2:We not only communicate with others, but also with ourselves ® we monitor our production also in our L2.
What is the difference between native speakers and non-proficient language learners in terms of monitoring?Native speakers are capable of monitoring themselves because most cases of lack of accuracy are mistakes (performance). Non-natives make a lot of errors (competence). Lack of knowledge of the target-like forms and sometimes can’t monitor themselves:Lack of knowledge;Lack of attention resources (focusing on meaning an not forms);Focusing on fluency rather than accuracy (Skehan’s Competition model)
Language production: The evidence that these systems of oral production works well is that speakers make very few mistakes BUT sometimes there are some problems in speech production both in L1 and L2.Usually in L1 production everything goes smoothly and automatically in this phase, but sometimes “slips of the tongue, or pen, or computer keyboard” happen.
3. LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN
The upper surface of the brain, or cortex is much bigger in human beings. The cortex deals with complicated operations, including finding information that has been stored in memory and making connections between different pieces of information.
The MOTOR area in the brain controls muscular movement. In human brains, more of this area is given over to the control of the mouth, tongue, and lips.
The CEREBELLUM at the base of the brain coordinates muscular movements that have become automatic. The human cerebellum is much larger in relation to overall size.
Human motor areas exercise much greater control over the larynx, the organ that regulates the passage of air in breathing.
THE HEMISFERES: Left brain: logic, analysis, sequencing, matths,language,..Right brain: creativity,imagination,intuition,fellings…
Even though there is hemisphere dominance for different functions, we shouldn’t forget that there are millions of associations pathways connecting left and right hemisphere (corpus callosum):Information is shared between the two hemispheres.; In cases of brain damage, another area of the brain can sometimes take over functions that are typical of another area.
Interesting fact about how the brain works:The left hemisphere controls the right side of our body, and the right hemisphere the left side of our body.
The lobes of the brain: 1.frontal lobe:distinctly human abilities such as: Reasoning,Planning,Emotion, Problem solving, Speech (Broca’s area).
2. Parietal lobe:Primary area for sensation, recognition and perception of tactile stimuli (e.g. touch, size, shape). 3.Temporal lobe: Mediates visual and verbal memory and smell.Wernicke’s area. 4.Occipital lobe:primary area for control of visual processing.Sensory association area for vision, auditory and tactile information.
Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas: Broca’s area imp fuctions: semantic, morphosyntactic, phonological processing and movement. Wernicke’s area imp fuction: comprehension.
Right hemisphere and language: Pragmatic competence-Acquired relatively early by children.Tone and prosody: All languages use it (to distinguish questions from assertions, for example), and others for meaning.In tone languages tone is processed by the left hemisphere, but in non-tone languages it is processed by the right hemisphere: questions vs. assertions, anger, enthusiasm, etc.Lexicon:Words primarily in left hemisphere, but there is also some lexical knowledge in right hemisphere. Joanette found that right-brain-damaged patients behaved similar to controls in verbal fluency task asking for words of similar FORM but not retrieving words of same SEMANTIC category (slower). in story telling right brain important for choosing words to convey emotion. Emotion in discourse:Right hemisphere crucial for processing emotion. Facial expression of emotion also controlled by right hemisphere.Discourse appropriateness: Register, Non-literal language.
Differential use of cerebral mechanisms in bilinguals Distinction between: Implicit competence, Explicit metalinguistic knowledge, Pragmatic competence, Motivation.
Implicit competenceTraditionally considered language functions: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,Perisylvian cortex of left hemisphere,Acquired incidentally,Remains opaque to introspection,Is used automatically,Improves with practice.Metalinguistic knowledgeIn declarative memory,Learned consciously,Open to introspection,Is used in a controlled, sometimes effortful way,Improves with practice (gets faster) but cannot become implicit,Through practicing metalinguistic knowledge of structure A, structure B or item X could be implicitly acquired.
Pragmatic competence Right hemisphere,Crucial in interpreting/using figurative language, metaphors, idioms, indirect speech acts, sarcasm, irony, etc. Motivation:Related to limbic system,Amygdala: appraisal of incoming sensory stimulus. Amygdala generates opiates that facilitate retention in long-term-memory
In which way is motivation or desire to communicate different in L1 and L2?L1: desire/motivation to communicate L2: not such obvious need/motivation (artificial situations)
Other ways of examining the brain
Apart from analyzing deceased patients’ brains, there are other techniques that allow us to examine the processes in the brain: Wada test (anesthetizing one hemisphere), Brain mapping during surgery, Split-brain patients, Hemispherectomy , Brain imaging techniques. Some examples: Computed Tomography Scan (CT),Positron Emission Tomography (PET),Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI),Event Related Potential (ERP).
Speech and language disorders:
The examination of language disorders can provide insightful information about how language is organized and processed. Acquired language problems, after the L1 has already been established, Developmental language problems, affecting speed and/or completeness of L1 acquisition. (Language impairment: certain syndromes affect how language develops,Gaps in competence: problems in language areas in the case of children developing normally)
Acquired language disorders: Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia, Conduction aphasia, Anomic aphasia,Global aphasia.
Developmental language disorders:Down syndrome,Williams syndrome,Autism,SLI, Dyslexia.
Broca’s aphasia
Causes of aphasia: A stroke (brain infarct),A brain tumor,Head injury (e.g. accidents, war),Other neurological traumas (e.g. brain infections, dementia).
Some of the problems that many Broca’s aphasia patients experience:Problems with function words (“little words”),Speech is dysfluent ,Hesitations,Lack of cohesion,Comprehension ok,Weakness in right side of body ® difficulty to write,Reading is impaired
Wernicke’s aphasiaSpeech is fluent, but not coherent, Problems with comprehension (both from their own production and others’), Reading and writing often severely impaired.
Conduction aphasiaDamage to nerve fibers connecting Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, Rare, Individuals are unable to repeat words, sentences
Anomic aphasiaThe only problem is with naming, or “finding words”, Can happen with age but also because of other traumas.
Global aphasiaPatients can produce very few syllables and language, Understand very little, Patients can neither read or write, Associated with damage to large portions of the left hemisphere.
Developmental language disorders
Down SyndromeNamed after John Langdom Down, British physician who first described the syndrome in 1866,Congenial disorder due babies being born with an extra Chromosome 21 (identified by Jérôme Lejeune in 1959),Affects different areas of the midbrain and the forebrain and leads to different cognitive and behavioral problems, including language deficits.Often problems with…visual convergence, hearing, sensation, physical coordination, understanding speech,manual function. Language problems are a consequence of other cognitive problems: the degree of language disability is proportional to cognitive disabilityUsually good communicators, but relying on non-verbal skills. Significant delay in language development. More problems with grammar than vocabulary. Poor articulation (enlargement of the tongue). Speech is hesitant and limited. Children can benefit from language instruction and special interventions. Also adults, as some abilities continue improving beyond teen years (e.g. expression and production skills)
Williams syndrome“Williams Syndrome (WS) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by mild to moderate mental retardation or learning difficulties, a distinctive facial appearance, and a unique personality that combines over-friendliness and high levels of empathy with anxiety.” (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke) Problems with spatial relations,Developmental delays in learning as children (walking, talking, etc.),Problem with certain motor skills,Problems with spatial relationships,Poor numerical skills. Language:Wide range of vocabulary but in some cases used in semantically inappropriate ways. In general: good language skills. The brain:Still inconclusive results as to why people with WS are so talented in some areas (language, music, social skills) and perform poorly in other (spatial relations); One difference in the cerebellum (certain areas are larger)
AutismAvoidance of human contact and interaction, Avoidance of eye contact,Lack of good pragmatic/interactional skills, Delay in language development ,
Problems with personal pronouns (referring to oneself by name and not ‘I’, ‘me’; or “Are you drinking water?” Answer: “You are drinking water”, instead of “I am drinking water”,Echolalia” or repetition of utterances heard from another person in the conversation,Inability to use gestures as primary means of communication,Lack of response to the speech of others (mistaken by hearing problem),About 10% have higher than average musical or calculation skills.
Specific Language Impairment (SLI)Children who have otherwise normal (or even better than normal) cognitive skills in other areas. Problems with language:Mostly with production, Some phonological problems. Many problems with inflections. Recently: SLI limitation in the brain capacity to process information quickly (can’t focus on morphemes, simplification of final sounds, etc.)No actual brain damage, but unusual clustering of cells in some language areas has been reported.
DyslexiaTwo main types:Surface dyslexia: ability to decode words phonologically but not whole words. Deep dyslexia: inability to decode words phonologically, but can decode whole words they know (“gestalt” reading of words). Treatments available.
Language loss through agingWith age decrease in Long-term memory, Short-term memory (more apparent): problems accessing the material to be recalled, But individual differences and age should be considered in terms of health. Alzheimer’s disease:Linguistic as well as emotion, cognition and personality disintegration.
MULTILINGUALISM AND EDUCATION
Objectives:To provide a large-scale view of multilingualism;To analyze educational issues in relation to multilingualism and bilingualism;To reflect upon educational provisions for language minorities in Europe and in the USA.:To consider different policies in multilingual settings:To examine language policy and use in some multilingual cities/countries
Some definitions of bilingualism: Mackey: “ability to use more than one language”. Butler&Hakuta, bilinguals: “individuals or groups of people
who obtain communicative skills, with various degrees of proficiency, in oral and/or written forms, in order to interact with speakers of one or more languages in a given society”Types of bilinguals/multilinguals: Balanced vs. dominant (related to maximalist and minimalist definitions of bilingualism); Sequential vs. simultaneous: Elective vs. circumstancial; Substractive vs. additive bilingualism. Other benefits of bilingualism/multilingualismDiscuss; Easier access to cultural and social values associated with the target languages (esp. important in the case of heritage language speakers); Identity (also for heritage language speakers; Economic benefits and opportunities in international business; Child “language brokers” who translate for their parents and other adults mature faster
Cognitive Theories of Bilingualism and the Curriculum:Children’s L2 competence dependent on L1 competence (the higher the latter the easier to develop the former); Distinction between basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP). Many language minority children have well-developed BICS but fail academically because underdeveloped CALP in L2. If CALP developed in L1, such knowledge could be transferred to L2.
Different types of bilingual programs. Strong bilingual education programs The goal is to develop proficiency and literacy skills in both L1 and L2. Designed for majority language students (immersion; two-way immersion) or minority language students (heritage language programs/developmental or maintenance bilingual; two-way immersion). Good results for majority language students. Good for minority language students, better results than other types of bilingual education programs
Bilingual education for majority language students: All the students share the same L1, which is the language of the community. At least 50% of curriculum in the L2. Voluntary participation in the program. Promotion of bilingualism, biliteracy, bicultural skills.
E.g.: immersion programs in French for English-speaking Canadians. Other programs to preserve minority languages in bilingual communities: Basque, Catalan, etc. Immersion in Canada: pioneers. It started mainly because of parents’ concerns of children’s bilingualism.
