Aquinas & Machiavelli: Faith, Reason, and Statecraft
Aquinas: Faith, Reason, and Divine Revelation
Thomas Aquinas was a prominent theologian and philosopher of the thirteenth century, a leading figure of Scholasticism. He developed a model for the relationship between faith and reason, granting significant authority to philosophy and incorporating much of Aristotle’s thought.
The Necessity of Divine Revelation
Aquinas argued that human salvation requires the infallible revelation of God. He posited that theology is essential for salvation, as reason alone cannot fully grasp the divine.
Key Ideas:
- The salvation of mankind requires theology, as reason alone cannot reach the ultimate end, which is God.
- To know the truth and turn to God for salvation, one must understand the divine.
- Divine revelation is the only sure path to salvation, providing precise knowledge of God’s truth.
Structure of Aquinas’s Argument
- Thesis: Divine revelation is necessary for salvation.
- Rationale:
- Philosophy is insufficient for complete knowledge of God, as some truths are beyond human reason.
- Human reasoning can be prone to errors.
- Rational knowledge is accessible to a few, while salvation is meant for all.
- Conclusion: Divine revelation is necessary for salvation.
Explanation of Aquinas’s Ideas
As a Christian, Aquinas accepted divine revelation and submitted to it through faith. He distinguished between reason and faith, corresponding to the natural and supernatural orders, respectively.
- The natural order stems from reason and is the domain of philosophy.
- The supernatural order originates from God’s revelation. This order provides two types of truths:
- Preambles of faith: Intelligible truths attainable through reason.
- Mysteries of faith: Truths that are not intelligible but require an act of faith to be accepted, as they are beyond human understanding.
Aquinas maintained that there can be no conflict between faith and reason, as both originate from God and are parts of the same truth. Faith, supported by God’s grace, involves truths revealed by God, while reason is a God-given faculty of the soul. They complement each other: faith can guard against errors in reason, and reason can provide demonstrations that support faith.
Since only revelation is free of errors, it is the sole method of attaining salvation. Apparent contradictions between reason and faith arise from human errors in reasoning. In such cases, revelation serves as the ultimate criterion, and the truth will align with faith over reason.
Machiavelli: Statecraft and the Pragmatic Prince
Niccolò Machiavelli was an Italian philosopher of the Renaissance (15th-16th centuries) who focused on politics and laid the foundations for the modern conception of the state.
The Utilitarian Approach to Politics
Machiavelli believed that a politician should prioritize practicality and necessity over utopian visions and ideals. Depending on the situation, a ruler might need to act immorally or morally to maintain power or secure the state’s well-being.
Key Ideas:
- Utilitarianism requires focusing on reality rather than ideal representations.
- Ruin can result from:
- Acting morally at all times.
- Pursuing utopian ideals that have never existed.
- A prince or politician who wishes to stay in power must learn to be good or not good as the situation demands.
Structure of Machiavelli’s Argument
- Thesis: Machiavelli’s work has a utilitarian purpose.
- Reasons that lead a prince to ruin:
- Relying on unrealistic utopias.
- Acting morally among those who are naturally evil.
- Conclusion: A prince who seeks to maintain power must be guided by good and sometimes not.
Explanation of Machiavelli’s Ideas
Machiavelli believed that humans are inherently evil. This leads to hostilities between states and individuals, driven by the lust for power and self-interest above the common good.
The state is necessary because it understands human nature and can control it. Politics is the means to exert this control. Machiavelli viewed political action as a science that must be effective above all else. Sometimes, it is necessary not to be good, as morality is secondary to the state’s well-being.
The ruler must do everything in their power for the good of the state, disregarding moral principles if necessary (deceiving, manipulating, simulating). A ruler should also be feared, as this ensures respect and prevents wrongdoing against them. Therefore, the use of violence or force may be justified.