Architectural Techniques and Sculptural Processes in Art History

Posted on Aug 26, 2024 in Technology

Architecture: Ironwork and Architectural Techniques

Ironwork, particularly the way stone was cut, played a crucial role in shaping architectural techniques. Treatises on stonework led to transformations in walls, stands, arches, and covers.

Walls

Walls served a load-bearing function and were built to be gapless, except for designated access points. They were constructed using rigging, ensuring regular wear. The measurements of the stones varied, and different tools like chisels and hammers were used depending on the type of ashlar.

Arrangement of Stones

  1. Isodomo: All courses are the same height.
  2. Pseudoisodomo: Two different sizes of three courses.
  3. Opus Reticulatum
  4. Opus Spicatum (fishbone)
  5. Cushioning. Everything rope-blight.

Irregular Arrangements

Uncut stones of various sizes, piled up with or without mortar, placed by hand, are referred to as masonry. These pieces were joined with adobe mortar, animal droppings, etc.

  1. Opus Caementicium: Pebbles, lime, and sand forming a continuous surface.
  2. Opus Craticum: Wood-frame wall with stone and lime or cement.
  3. Opus Incertum: Concrete wall with embedded, unworked stones.
  4. Polygonal Opus
  5. Cyclopean Opus
  6. Opus Vitatum: Horizontal rows, irregular and varying in height.
  7. Opus Quadratum: Rows of stones of similar size and height.
  8. Opus Testaceum: Brick wall made of cooked tiles of different sizes, joined with mortar. Walls could also be built without mortar, known as dry wall or rope.

Sculpture

Types

  • Bulk
  • Round
  • Statue
  • Image (categorized based on body portion represented, position, and presentation)

Sculptural Processes

Additive

Soft materials like clay, wax, and clay are used.

  • Substrate
  • Joint Molding

Carved Stone

Different types of stone were used, each with its own properties:

  • Magmatic: The toughest stones, including granite, diorite, basalt, and philonian porphyry.
  • Sedimentary: Includes sandstone, clay, limestone, salt, and coal.
  • Metamorphic: Stones whose structure has been altered by heat and pressure, such as slate, marble, and quartzite.

Tools used in stone carving included stands, elements for pushing, cutting, hitting, and roughing (chisels, hammers, drills, wedges, abrasives like pumice), and power sources like electric motors.

Elements of Stone Carving

  • Compass for references
  • Removal system of points: Serial Copy
  • Direct preparation on the stone
  • Hint: Using measurement tools for a model

Wood Carving

Types of Wood

  • Fine Woods: Walnut, oak, mahogany, ebony. These woods were typically left in their natural color.

Tools

Knives, chisels, mallets, rasps, files, etc.

Wood Preparation

Trees used for carving were cut at least five years before use, during winter when the sap was at the root. The wood needed to be thoroughly dry.

Characteristics of Wood

  • Hardness
  • Frequency, strength, and intensity of grain
  • Poro: A determinant for finishing, rasping, flattening resistance, and joining

Joining Techniques

Spikes, nails, screws, and special glues were used. Polychrome masks were often hollowed out for lightness. Clothed figures often had a wooden or metal structure covered by robes, with only visible parts like the face, hands, and feet carved.

Process

  • Sketch in clay or wax
  • Different blocks carved for different parts, smoothed together for accuracy
  • Large images constructed with a hollow core of planks and studs
  • Small images carved from a single block, larger ones from glued blocks
  • Pieces locked and secured with linen strips, bolts, or iron nails
  • Block fixed to the workbench with screws
  • Rough shaping with chisels, adzes, saws, rasps, etc.
  • More precise cuts with specialized tools, following the grain
  • Carving of folds, details, hands, and head
  • Smoothing and polishing with rasps and files

Form Work

The master sculptor typically created the model, defining the size and expressive characteristics. Assistants helped with the technique of moving points using compasses. The workshop handled the bulk of the work, with the master adding the finishing touches. The sculpture was then passed to a painter for polychroming. In some cases, the sculptor agreed to leave the piece unfinished and unpainted. The painting and grouting were typically done by the workshop, with the master painter responsible for the most delicate parts.

Polychrome Process

The polychrome process took place between February and September, the less humid months.

Steps

  1. Review and Preparation: Cleaning, correcting damage, removing resin, applying fabric to cover glued joints, applying plaster and hemp reinforcement.
  2. Rigging and Bonding: Applying ajicola (animal glue) in multiple layers, sometimes mixed with plaster. This provided resistance to decay.
  3. Plaster Layers: Applying thick layers of plaster, polishing with rasp and sandpaper, using crisp brushwork.
  4. Gesso Layers: Applying 4-5 layers of hard gesso, polishing to achieve a smooth surface.
  5. Review and Refinement: Removing pores and imperfections with fine chisels and sanding sticks. Glass eyes were sometimes added at this stage.
  6. Gilding (Dorado): Two phases: Embolado (preparing the surface for gold leaf) and Placement of gold leaf. Polishers were used to smooth the gold. Sometimes the gold was left matte and unburnished.
  7. Stew: Imitating embroidered fabrics using carving, gluing, or painting techniques like sgrafiado (scratching through paint to reveal gold) or a brush tip.
  8. Incarnation: Painting the hair and flesh tones. Two types: polished (bright) and matte. Prosthetic elements like glass eyes, tears, natural hair wigs, eyelashes, ivory teeth, crowns of thorns, nails, iron string, fabrics, and lace were sometimes added.