Argentina: From Imperialism to the Centennial (1871-1910)
Imperialism (1871-1919)
Definition
Imperialism refers to states’ tendency to expand their influence culturally, territorially, or economically at the expense of other peoples or states. This document covers the period from 1871 to 1919, which Hobsbawm termed the era of imperialism.
Causes
- Need for new markets and capital
- Search for raw materials
- Population explosion
- Evangelizing missions
- Social Darwinism and chauvinism
- Expansion and development of transportation and communication
Implications
- New markets
- Investment of capital into colonies
- Imbalances in migration between population and resources
- Loss of traditions
- Establishment of new frontiers
Presidency of Julio Argentino Roca (1880-1886)
National Autonomist Party (PAN)
The National Autonomist Party (PAN), with the motto “Peace and Administration,” occupied territories in Patagonia and Chaco. Under Roca’s leadership, significant public works were undertaken in Buenos Aires, overseen by Mayor Torcuato de Alvear (later appointed President by Roca).
Secular Laws
Secular laws were passed, leading to opposition from the Church and a rupture of relations with the Holy See. These included the Common Education Law 1420 (July 8, 1884) and the Civil Registration Act 1565 (October 31, 1884).
Economic Policy
Large expenditures on military equipment, territorial occupation, and infrastructure resulted in substantial national debt, necessitating permanent loans. The Treaty of 1881 with Chile established the high peaks as the border, granting the Strait of Magellan to Chile and dividing Tierra del Fuego. This agreement established the bioceanic principle: Argentina on the Atlantic and Chile on the Pacific.
Presidency of Miguel Juárez Celman (1886-1890)
Unicato of the PAN
Juárez Celman, supported by Roca, represented the unicato of the PAN, holding both the Presidency of the Party and the Presidency of the Nation. Continued large expenditures on public works, salaries, and loans led to significant inflation.
Economic Crisis of 1889
A severe economic crisis in 1889 resulted in the bankruptcy of national and provincial banks. The legal tender was declared worthless, leading to stock market speculation and the creation of shell companies. Bankruptcies became widespread.
Revolution of ’90
Opposition forces united at a large rally, forming the Civic Union. Key figures included Bartolomé Mitre, Fidel López, Aristóbulo del Valle, Bernardo de Irigoyen, Leandro N. Alem, Estrada, and Pedro Goyena. The movement, led by General Leandro Campos and Alem, aimed to overthrow Celman. Roca persuaded the military to cease the rebellion, leading to Celman’s resignation and preserving the PAN regime.
Presidency of Carlos Pellegrini (1890-1892)
“The Storm Rider”
Pellegrini, tasked with resolving the economic crisis, reduced public spending, canceled railway concessions, and secured a postponement of foreign debt payments. Two excellent harvests helped stabilize the balance of payments.
National Bank
National and provincial banks were closed, and the National Bank was inaugurated in 1891, quickly gaining public trust. Pellegrini garnered support from employers, landowners, and bankers to overcome the crisis.
National Recovery Plan
Finance Minister Vicente Fidel López implemented a protectionist plan called “National Recovery” to reduce dependence on foreign capital. This initiative, contrasting with the prevailing free trade policies, raised concerns. The ambitious plan required new loans to repay existing debts, exemplified by a loan from Rothschild Bank, where Argentina received 75 million but had to deposit 50 million.
Rise of Socialism
Socialist ideas, brought by immigrants and supporters of the working class, began to emerge. Newspapers like “The Worker” and “La Vanguardia” (led by Juan B. Justo) promoted these ideas. The Socialist Party was founded in 1896, and Alfredo Palacios became the first socialist deputy in the Americas in 1904, elected by the La Boca district.
Presidential Succession
Roca (PAN) reached an agreement with Mitre (Civic Union), leading to a split in the National Union (with Mitre) and the formation of the Radical Civic Union (UCR) (with Alem and Irigoyen). The modern party nominated Roque Sáenz Peña. The UCR nominated Bernardo de Irigoyen, who withdrew due to electoral fraud by the PAN. The PAN’s Luis Sáenz Peña and José Evaristo Uriburu won the election.
Presidency of Luis Sáenz Peña (1892-1895)
Economic and Political Instability
The economic situation remained dire, with Argentina failing to meet its debt obligations and securing another extension. The political situation worsened as the president was seen as a puppet of Roca and Pellegrini, having come to power through fraudulent elections (withdrawal of the UCR). There were 23 ministerial crises, and even the appointment of radical Aristóbulo del Valle as Minister of the Interior, who attempted a revolution from within the government, failed.
Revolution of 1893
Leandro N. Alem and his nephew, Hipólito Yrigoyen, led a failed revolution in 1893. The president resigned, making way for José E. Uriburu.
Presidency of José Evaristo Uriburu (1895-1898)
Continued Influence of Roca and Pellegrini
Roca, Pellegrini, and Mitre continued to exert influence. Leandro Alem committed suicide in 1896, followed by the death of Aristóbulo del Valle. The UCR, now led by Yrigoyen, refused to participate in elections due to ongoing fraud.
Argentina as the “Breadbasket of the World”
Argentina’s excellent harvests led to its recognition as the “breadbasket of the world.” The Otto Krause Industrial School and the School of Philosophy were founded, and the Faculty of Medicine building was inaugurated.
Border Disputes
Border issues with Brazil in the Oriental Missions were exacerbated by U.S. President Cleveland’s intervention, resulting in significant territorial losses for Argentina. Difficulties in demarcating the border with Chile created a tense atmosphere, leading to Argentina’s purchase of the Fragata Sarmiento and the implementation of the first general conscription.
Presidential Succession
The PAN proposed the Roca/Costa formula, and the UCR abstained. Lisandro de la Torre’s Democratic Progressive Party (PDP) split from the UCR, establishing a strong presence in Santa Fe province.
Second Presidency of Julio Argentino Roca (1898-1904)
Military Reorganization and Border Disputes
In response to the border dispute with Chile, the army was reorganized, and the Ricchieri Law (1901) established compulsory military service. The War College, the Puerto Belgrano Naval Base, and the Río Santiago shipyard were established. In 1899, Roca met with Chilean President Errazuriz in the “Embrace of the Straits,” leading to a peaceful resolution through British arbitration. In 1902, the “Pact of May” averted further conflict, and King Edward VII of England issued his Solomonic ruling. The Christ the Redeemer monument was inaugurated in Mendoza in 1904 as a symbol of peace.
Drago Doctrine
The Drago Doctrine, stating that “no country could require weapons by collecting a debt,” was established in response to pressure from Italy, England, and Germany on Venezuela.
Public Works and Economic Development
Public works projects, including railway expansion, the first subway line, hospitals, the Congress and Courts Building, and Avenida de Mayo, were undertaken. U.S. capital began to flow into the country. This economic growth contrasted with the hardships faced by immigrants, who lived in tenements and experienced strikes and the rise of unions. The government enacted the “Residence Law,” allowing for the expulsion of foreigners without explanation.
Presidential Succession
The UCR, under Yrigoyen’s leadership, continued to abstain from elections. The Socialist Party posed no significant challenge to the PAN. The Quintana-Alcorta formula secured another victory for the PAN.
Presidency of Manuel Quintana (1904-1906)
Influence of Roca and Radical Revolution
Quintana’s presidency was heavily influenced by Roca. A failed radical revolution took place in 1905, accompanied by increased union agitation and an attack on the president, from which he escaped unharmed. Quintana died in 1906, the same year that Bartolomé Mitre and Carlos Pellegrini passed away.
Presidency of José Figueroa Alcorta (1906-1910)
End of Roca’s Influence and Economic Progress
Alcorta ended Roca’s dominance. The economy progressed, with the discovery of oil in Comodoro Rivadavia. Major public works continued, including the Teatro Colón, the National Congress building, the Torre de los Ingleses (Clock Tower), and the Garibaldi Monument. The Centennial celebrations were held with great fanfare, with visits from Infanta Isabella of Spain and Chilean President Montt.
Economic and Social Challenges
Despite the apparent economic prosperity, Argentina remained dependent on Great Britain and the USA. The country continued to produce raw materials, lacking industrial development, and social conflicts persisted. Police Chief Ramón Falcón was assassinated by anarchists, and terrorist attacks targeted the Teatro Colón and the Government House. Roca attempted to oppose Congress, but Alcorta countered with the presidential closure.
Presidential Succession
The National Union supported the president’s proposed formula of Roque Sáenz Peña and Victorino de la Plaza, who won through electoral fraud. The UCR again abstained.
Presidency of Roque Sáenz Peña (1910-1916)
Electoral Reform
The electoral system lacked guarantees, with flawed procedures, negative influence from neighborhood leaders, questionable voting methods, official pressure, the complete list system, and the governing party’s ability to nominate its successors.
Immigration
Causes and Impact
European immigration to Argentina was driven by factors such as unemployment, population growth, religious persecution, and agrarian crises. Between 1880 and 1890, one million Europeans arrived, with 85% settling permanently. However, this influx was insufficient to meet the demands of the export economy. Between 1880 and 1914, nearly four million immigrants arrived, significantly increasing Argentina’s population from 1.8 million in 1869 (12% immigrants) to 7.8 million in 1914 (30% immigrants). The national state invested five million pesos to cover the passage of 130,000 people.
Immigrant Origins and Settlement Patterns
The majority of immigrants were Spanish and Italian, adapting well to Argentina’s conditions. Efforts were made to attract skilled professionals by establishing offices in countries like Britain, Germany, and France. Most immigrants settled in the Humid Pampas (Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos, and Córdoba), particularly in Santa Fe, as land in Buenos Aires was largely owned by large landowners. While some immigrants, especially those arriving before 1880 with capital, became landowners or merchants, most joined the ranks of rural and urban laborers, unable to acquire property.
Urbanization and Tenements
By the end of the 1890s, 90% of foreigners resided in Pampean cities, and the urban population surpassed the rural population for the first time. With limited land available for purchase, immigrants flocked to rapidly growing cities like Buenos Aires and Rosario, where infrastructure development struggled to keep pace. Newcomers crowded into tenements, mainly in southern Buenos Aires, in houses previously owned by wealthy families who had fled during the Yellow Fever epidemic. By 1890, a quarter of the population lived in collective dwellings.
Social Classes
The Elite
The Buenos Aires elite consisted of approximately 400 wealthy families who owned vast tracts of land in the province and benefited from the export-driven economy. They wielded significant political power and controlled the country’s affairs.
The Middle Class
Professionals, clerks, teachers, traders, carriers, and others whose progress was linked to the success of the export model constituted the middle class.
The Working Class
A large mass of skilled workers, including milliners, dressmakers, tailors, bakers, clockmakers, cabinetmakers, carpenters, and masons, formed the working class. This also included port stevedores, porters, and workers in the refrigeration and railway industries.