Aristotle and Plato: Key Philosophical Concepts
Understanding Knowledge and Causality
Knowledge (epistemology) exists only when we know the causes. This is exemplified by the argument of the first question: the unmoved mover, pure act. The cause of the first (generation, corruption, natural change) [physical: movement] is explained by:
- Establishing inherent characteristics
- Form, model, essence, definition (intrinsic)
- Genesis security (extrinsic cause)
- Purpose (extrinsic)
Universal Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning, as seen in Platonic dialectics, moves from general principles to particular conclusions. It is associated with idealism and rationalism. Inductive reasoning, favored by Aristotle, moves from particular observations to general conclusions. It is associated with empiricism.
Causal Theory
The Notion of the First Cause
Anaxagoras proposed that the universe (cosmos) is composed of homeomeries arranged randomly, without a vacuum, in a finite, spherical form. He posited the existence of a nous, an organizing intelligence, responsible for the movement of the “real” cosmos. Aristotle distinguished between the supralunar world (ether), characterized by an unmoved mover (a thought that thinks itself, pure act), and the sublunary world, characterized by natural and violent changes in motion. These differences are similar to those proposed by deists.
The Purpose of Human Actions
What is the purpose of our actions? Many and various answers have been proposed, leading to an infinite regress. Therefore, there must be a highest good, desired for itself and not dependent on anything else. This good is found in political activity, which determines necessary sciences and depends on strategy, rhetoric, and ecology. The end can be individual (good) or legal (better). Teleology focuses on the end, while will focuses on the intention.
The Polis and the State
Historically, the polis was a self-sufficient, local government. Plato and Socrates emphasized the role of rhetoric in parliament to pursue the interests of free citizens. Later, with the rise of empires, the polis became dependent on a central authority, with taxes going to the emperor.
Eudaimonia and the Good Life
According to Aristotle, our natural place is within the polis or city, where we can engage in activities proper to us. Eudaimonia, often translated as “flourishing” or “living well,” is linked to pragmatism. It involves contemplation (partial) and leads to a good, happy life (partial).
The Structure of the Polis
The polis is composed of villages and families, fostering pragmatic coexistence. A more complex polis requires a government, which can take the form of a monarchy, aristocracy, or polity (focused on the general interest). Ethics are intertwined with privacy.
Political Society
Plato, in The Republic, advocated for an idealistic, utopian society characterized by egalitarianism (equal education for men and women) but questioned the role of slavery. He also favored democracy. Aristotle, in Politics, took a more pragmatic, empirical approach, viewing slavery as good and necessary and discussing various forms of government.
Criticisms and Key Concepts
Criticisms of Platonic Ideas
Two main criticisms of Plato’s theory of Forms are:
- If the intelligible and sensible worlds are separate, then the being of things is not in them. However, we recognize ousias (essences), so being must be in them (hylomorphism).
- Platonic ideas are static, leaving movement unexplained. Plato’s counterargument involves a chaotic and formless, yet imperfect, matter.
From an ethical and political standpoint, Plato’s egalitarianism is seen as utopian, while Aristotle offers a more pragmatic perspective.
Teleology and Virtue
Every substance has an activity proper to it (teleology). For humans, the most exalted activity is contemplation (the use of reason, ataraxia). This activity is necessarily part of eudaimonia, which is also partial. Eudaimonia can only be achieved through life in the polis and the cultivation of virtue (arete). Virtue is a habit that is learned. It can be analyzed into dianoetic virtues (like phronesis, or prudence) and ethical virtues (criteria for applying them based on the mean and friendship).
Sophists and Relativism
Sophists were known for their conventionalism, skepticism, and relativism. Relativism can be epistemological or ethical (nomos = norms). Socrates and Plato criticized the relativism of the Sophists. Aristotle argued that if there were only relativism, there would be no universal ethic.