Aristotle on Human Nature, Ethics, and Happiness
Aristotle: Anthropology and Ethics
Aristotle’s vision of nature significantly influences his binomial view. The metaphysics of matter/form and potentiality/actuality determines the Aristotelian conception of human beings.
The Soul and the Body
The human is an animated being, a being with a soul and life, which are two related, virtually similar concepts. The Soul gives life to the substance or body (cuerpo) and differentiates animate beings from inanimate ones. Aristotle maintains a dualistic position, a posture where man consists of a core and two complementary realities: soul and body. They are like matter and form, constituting the substance. The soul and body are essential for being alive, which can include plants, animals, and human beings. The Soul is the life of the body. As living beings possess a soul, there are different types:
Vegetative Soul
Plants have the vegetative soul, and so does the human being. Its functions are nutritive, and its goal is the conservation of the species.
Sensitive Soul
The sensitive soul is possessed by all animals and also the human being. Its functions are related to appetites, some reasoning skills, and the ability to interact with the environment.
Rational Soul
The rational soul is proper to the human being. Its functions involve reflection. It permits knowledge (conocimiento) and understanding the world and one’s own self.
Ethics: The Pursuit of Happiness
Ethics is practical knowledge because it concerns how humans should organize their lives to be happy (feliz). In animals, character or behavior is determined. However, in humans, behavior (comportamiento) depends on the individual person. Humans have the ability to reason about the most appropriate behavior in each situation (situación). According to Aristotle, all human behavior (comportamiento) aims to bring happiness (felicidad). Happiness is the supreme good; it is the actualization or realization of the potential specific to each being.
Intellectual Virtues (Dianoetic)
The activity most specific to man will provide the greatest happiness (felicidad). Therefore, neither the vegetative nor the sensitive soul’s functions lead to the highest happiness, but rather the good exercise of the rational faculty. The rational dimension, when exercised excellently, yields theoretical efficiencies or virtues, which we call intellectual (dianoetic) virtues. These are all related to the capacity for reflection and deliberation (discusión) and, therefore (xtanto), with the ability to understand the world (cómo es) and know how to apply what we know in our choices (elecciones). Aristotle discusses 5 dianoetic virtues:
- Prudence (Phronesis): Practical reason, applied in practice (práctica).
- Art/Craft (Techne): The ability to produce something rationally, following artistic or technical principles.
- Wisdom (Sophia): Knowledge that seeks to understand objective reality (realidad).
- Scientific Knowledge (Episteme): Aims to explain universal phenomena of nature (naturaleza).
- Intuitive Reason (Nous): The ability to grasp the first, general principles of science.
Ethical Virtues
Human beings are not purely intellectual; they also have needs and desires (deseos). The human being has a rational soul but also possesses the vegetative and sensitive souls. For a person to be happy, they must act not only with intellectual (dianoetic) virtue but also with ethical virtue. Ethical virtues relate to how we act in the world, controlling our passions and desires, ensuring they align with rational guidelines. The most appropriate ethical guideline is always moderation, i.e., the mean (midpoint) between excess and defect. The mean depends on each case and situation (situación). Prudence and reason will guarantee (garantizan) the choice of the mean (términos medios). Achieving happiness is not easy, but it is not impossible if one has the resources or potential to do so (hacer).