Aristotle to Aquinas: Ethics, Virtue, and Happiness
Aristotle on the End of Action
For Aristotle, the ultimate end of all human action is happiness (eudaimonia).
Aristotle’s Definition of Happiness
- Happiness involves living well and doing well; it requires knowing the right thing to do, at the right time, and in the right way.
The Function of a Human Being
- To live an active life that expresses reason and to do so in accordance with virtue.
Humans seek happiness because it is a self-sufficient good – desired for its own sake and not for the sake of something else. Happiness is the final end of all action.
The Function Argument
- Human beings possess a rational soul, which distinguishes their function. Aristotle posits that a human being’s unique function is to reason.
- The good of a thing lies in performing its function well.
- A human being’s proper function is to reason.
- Therefore, the human good (happiness) is achieved by reasoning well, which means living in accordance with virtue.
Aristotle on Virtue
- Virtue (aretē) is understood as excellence, particularly in relation to function.
- It represents the excellent performance of a specific function.
- Examples:
- A good football player excels at their specific position.
- A good chair effectively supports someone, is comfortable, and is well-designed.
Moral vs. Intellectual Virtues
- Moral virtues (e.g., courage, temperance) pertain to the non-rational part of the soul (desires and emotions) but are guided by reason. They are virtues of character, developed through habit.
- Intellectual virtues (e.g., wisdom, understanding, practical wisdom) are virtues of the rational part of the soul, developed through teaching and learning. They include theoretical reason (sophia) and practical reason (phronesis).
General Definition of Virtue
Virtue is a disposition (hexis) or state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean relative to us, this being determined by reason, and by that reason by which the person of practical wisdom (phronimos) would determine it. It is a mean between two vices: one of excess and one of deficiency.
Deliberation
- Deliberation concerns the means to achieve a desired end, not the end itself (we wish for ends, but deliberate about means).
- It does not concern eternal or necessary truths (like mathematics) or things outside our control.
- We do not deliberate about the past.
- We deliberate about things that are up to us and can be achieved through action, considering different ways to attain our goals.
- Example: Deliberating about the best way to become healthy.
Practical Wisdom (Phronesis)
- Practical wisdom is the intellectual virtue governing practical reason.
- It involves deliberating well about what is good and advantageous for living a flourishing life overall.
- It is knowing the right way to pursue ends in particular situations.
- The ends (what we aim for) are often determined by our character (moral virtue), while practical wisdom determines the best means to achieve those ends.
Ignorance: Universal vs. Particular
Ignorance of the Universal
- This refers to ignorance of general moral principles or what constitutes good or bad action (e.g., not knowing that murder is wrong). Aristotle argues this is characteristic of a wicked person and does not make an action involuntary; rather, it is the cause of the wickedness.
Ignorance of the Particular
- This refers to ignorance of specific facts or circumstances surrounding an action (e.g., not knowing the gun was loaded, not knowing the person was your friend).
- Example: Accidentally harming someone because you were unaware of a specific detail in the situation.
According to Aristotle, only ignorance of the particular can make an action involuntary, provided the agent regrets the action afterward. Ignorance of the universal relates to character and does not excuse the action because the principle of the action still originates within the agent.
Involuntary Action
- Actions are involuntary if they are caused by external force (where the agent contributes nothing) or by ignorance of particular circumstances.
- An involuntary action resulting from ignorance must involve ignorance of the particular details and be followed by pain and regret once the agent becomes aware of the facts.
Critiques of Aristotle: Androcentrism
Aristotle’s ethical framework is often criticized for being androcentric, primarily focusing on the lives, experiences, and capabilities of free Greek males, largely excluding women, slaves, and foreigners from the possibility of achieving full virtue and happiness.
Critiques of Aristotle: Elitism
Aristotle’s theory is also seen as elitist. It suggests that the highest form of happiness (eudaimonia) and the full development of virtue require certain external goods, such as wealth, leisure, education, and social status, which were only available to a privileged few in ancient Greek society. The virtuous life for this minority arguably depended upon the labor of others who lacked the opportunity to pursue such a life themselves.
Augustine on Motivations for Evil
- Departing from classical views, Augustine argued that sometimes the motivation for an evil act is the evil itself – doing wrong simply for the sake of transgressing or because it is forbidden (as in his analysis of stealing pears).
- Another key motivation is pride (superbia), the desire to reject God’s authority and assert one’s own will, effectively trying to ‘be God’.
- This contrasts with the typical classical view that all actions aim at some perceived good, even if that perception is mistaken.
Augustine’s Departure from Classical Views
Augustine disagrees with the classical account (like Aristotle’s) that all actions aim at some perceived good. He introduces the idea of a will that can knowingly choose evil for its own sake or out of rebellion against God.
Aquinas on Happiness
- Thomas Aquinas, integrating Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology, distinguished between imperfect happiness (achievable through natural virtue in this earthly life, similar to Aristotle’s eudaimonia) and perfect happiness.
- The ultimate end for human beings is perfect happiness, which consists of the beatific vision – a supernatural union with God in the afterlife. This requires God’s grace and a right relationship with Him.
Theological Virtues (Aquinas)
- Due to the corruption of human nature by original sin, natural virtues alone are insufficient for achieving perfect happiness.
- Faith, hope, and charity (love) are the theological virtues. They are infused directly by God’s grace and are necessary to heal human nature, orient it towards its supernatural end (God), and overcome sin.
Aquinas on Natural Law
Natural law consists of the principles of practical reason that are accessible to all humans through their nature, reflecting their participation in God’s eternal law. It directs humans towards their proper end.
- Humans are subject to natural moral obligations derived from their rational nature (e.g., preserve life, live in society, seek truth).
- Reason grasps fundamental precepts, the most basic being “good is to be done and pursued, and evil is to be avoided,” obliging individuals to act in ways that promote human flourishing and the ultimate end.
Aquinas on Eternal Law
- God, as the ultimate Good and creator, is the source of all reality and goodness.
- The eternal law is God’s rational plan or providence governing the entire universe; it is the divine wisdom directing all things to their appointed ends.
- This law is manifested in the physical order of the cosmos, the instincts governing animals, and, uniquely in humans, through their rational participation, which is the natural law.
Aquinas on Human Law
- Human laws are specific statutes and regulations enacted by legitimate governing authorities.
- Just human laws should be derived from and consistent with the natural law, applying its general principles to particular circumstances to promote the common good and help citizens live virtuously and attain their ultimate end.