Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics: Happiness, Virtue, and the Polis

Posted on Nov 27, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics

Aristotle

1. Ethics: Happiness and Virtue

Aristotle’s ethical theory is the first to explicitly base humanity on reason.

  • Happiness: The End of Man

    For Aristotle, everything tends toward an end, a teleological conception. Man, as a free being, also has an end: happiness. Aristotle’s ethical theory is based on the pursuit of happiness, or eudaimonia. If we achieve the ultimate goal for which we exist, happiness is attained. This shapes diverse lifestyles; ethics regulates life, establishing minimum principles for coexistence.

  • Models of Life to Achieve Happiness
    1. Life of Pleasures: Aristotle doesn’t dismiss this, but pleasures aren’t humanity’s ultimate end, as this end must be specific to humans and not shared with animals.
    2. Political Life: Central for Aristotle (defining man as a political animal), but while humans are social beings, politics isn’t the ultimate goal. It’s a means to an end, dependent on people, thus not a perfect end.
    3. Intellectual Life: Humanity’s end, characterized by rationality (identifying with happiness). This lifestyle practices reason, its defining feature. The greatest achievement is dedicated to knowledge, especially reason: Metaphysics is the most proper and self-sufficient. This “elitist” life requires prerequisites; not everyone can engage in it. Aristotle recognizes the need for prior material and psychic conditions. His ethical theory is based on moral intellectualism, as acting well involves knowledge (“Only the gods are wise, we are philosophers”). Striving for happiness is utopian, something humans aim for but don’t fully achieve (a tragic conception of existence). One is never quite happy, always on the path.
  • Theory of Virtue

    Since happiness is utopian, Aristotle develops a practical theory: the theory of Virtue. One becomes “good” by having a good character, achieved through good habits. A good habit generates virtue, a bad habit, vice.

    • What is Virtue? A virtue is a habit that is an average determined by us on the right. The average is identified with an act through prudence (the extremes are vices). It’s a caution on us because the average is found through experience, and each act depends on circumstances.
  • Kinds of Virtue
    1. Ethical: Practical virtues, gained through polls and common experience (generosity, courage…). Moral intellectualism doesn’t fully apply here: knowledge alone isn’t enough; implementation is necessary.
    2. Dianoetic: Identifying with knowledge (what matters is knowing). These are different kinds of knowledge (Episteme, Sophia, Nous). They make man better known (approaching intellectualism). The virtue par excellence is Prudence.

Influence: Aristotle exerted enormous influence throughout Greece and the Middle Ages, impacting Western culture to this day (many authors follow Aristotle’s ethical standpoint, like Aranguren).

2. Politics: Polis

  • Origin of the Polis

    Aristotle explains its formation from the union of villages, which in turn come from families. The polis is an almost natural formation: Family and village handle basic needs (shelter, food, education…). While the family is a nucleus and the village covers economic and defense needs, the polis serves human needs (philosophy, music…). Aristotle considers the polis the only self-sufficient organization providing what’s needed for a good life. (Only someone more or less than human can live outside the polis, as humans need it.)

  • Forms of Government

    The polis needs a good government system. Aristotle studies these political systems, moving from the concrete to the universal. He makes a sociological study of existing systems to determine the best.

    • Right Systems: Those seeking the common good. He distinguishes three:
      1. Monarchy: Government by one person.
      2. Aristocracy: Government by a small, morally superior group.
      3. Republic: Government by a majority.
    • Corrupt Regimes: Degenerations of the righteous, seeking individual good:
      1. Tyranny: Government by one person.
      2. Oligarchy: Government by a small group in their own interest. A social and economic elite controlling politics.
      3. Democracy: Government by a disadvantaged majority, not for the common good, just the majority’s.
  • Ideal Scheme

    For Aristotle, the ideal system is aristocracy: the best governing for the common good. But this is unrealistic and rarely achieved. He proposes Politeia as the most practicable, safe, and difficult to corrupt (corresponding to good times in Athens). Good poleis can only exist with an educated middle class, as they have something to lose and tend not to revolt. This continues ethical theory: the best are the wisest. The ideal polis is sustainable and allows people to live well.