Aristotle’s Metaphysics: Substance, Hylomorphism, and Soul
Metaphysics
The Greek tradition, particularly with Parmenides, had already engaged with the concept of metaphysics. Metaphysics, as the science of being, developed to discuss principles, essence, and the ways of being. This is the central argument of the work. Abundant evidence from Greek literature before Plato and Aristotle suggests that ‘being’ was synonymous with ‘life’. Metaphysics deals with the study of being *as being* and its essential attributes. It is considered the first philosophy because of its universality. Therefore, the study of being is the analysis of what exists and how it appears.
Substance and Accident
Aristotle distinguishes between primary and secondary substances:
- Primary Substance: The concrete individual, the individual subject that possesses accidents, has a genus, and belongs to a particular species. Individual substances are substances *par excellence*.
- Secondary Substance: The species to which primary substances belong, as well as their genera. Strictly speaking, only the concrete individual (primary substance) truly exists, containing the species (secondary substance), genus, and nature.
The secondary substance is the essence of what each thing is said to be in itself; its definition.
Hylomorphism
Aristotle’s concept of hylomorphism posits that there is never matter without form. Substance is a composite of matter and form. Matter is the substratum of the form, which we perceive through the senses. This compound of matter and form is what is called *form*.
Critique of the Theory of Ideas
Aristotle believed that universal concepts must have a basis in reality. He argued that ideas arise from the experience, a mixture of sense and memory. He stated that the essence of a being is located *within* that being. Attempting to explain the sensible world through the intelligible world is, according to Aristotle, meaningless and problematic, as it doubles the difficulty by requiring the explanation of two worlds.
The Physical World and Change
Any substance initiates transformation and movement because of something within it. The principles of change are:
- The substance.
- The form to be acquired.
- The privation of form.
Aristotle classified four ways of change:
- Substantial Change: Occurs when something is generated or corrupted.
- Change of Place: Movement in space.
- Qualitative Change: Alters a characteristic of the substance.
- Quantitative Change: Involves growth or diminution.
Aristotle explains that changes in nature involve:
- Material Cause: What something is made of.
- Formal Cause: The structure or form that determines the matter.
- Efficient Cause: What originates the movement and acts causally.
- Final Cause: The purpose for which something is done.
The Human Being
Aristotle defines the soul as the form or perfection of a natural body that has the potential for life. The soul is the first actuality of a body that is living; it is the form of the body and is inseparable from it. The soul occupies three distinct levels:
- Vegetative Soul: The most basic level, responsible for nourishment and reproduction.
- Sensitive Soul: Gives rise to sensations, states of pleasure and pain, and desires that drive certain movements.
- Intellective or Rational Soul: The highest level, characteristic of humans, enabling reason and thought.