Aristotle’s Political and Natural Philosophy
Man as a Political Animal
For Aristotle, man is by nature a political animal. Unlike animals and gods, humans cannot live in isolation. Our natural inclination towards reproduction and preservation leads us to live together, first in families, then in villages, and finally in the city-state. A well-functioning city-state requires not only shared goals but also sensible laws that respect differences and promote civic responsibility. Aristotle identified three legitimate forms of government: monarchy (rule by one), aristocracy (rule by the best), and republic (rule by many). Their corrupted forms are tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy (rule by the poor). The best form of government depends on the specific circumstances of a state, discovered through factual investigation. Any government is good if the ruler seeks the good of the governed. Aristotle emphasized that humans, unlike other animals, possess language, which allows us to discern good and evil, justice and injustice, forming the basis of community and the city-state.
Physis (Nature)
Aristotle distinguishes between natural beings (having an internal source of movement) and artificial beings. Natural beings have inherent movement, and each body has a natural place and motion, identified with change. Aristotle’s physics critiques Parmenides’ denial of motion, introducing two types of non-being: absolute and relative. Absolute non-being is what cannot be, while relative non-being is what is not yet but can be. This potentiality becomes actuality through movement. Change involves a substance acquiring a form it previously lacked. There are two main types of change: substantial (generation and corruption) and accidental (changes in quality, quantity, or location). Aristotle’s theory of etiology explains movement through four causes:
- Material Cause: The substance from which something is made.
- Formal Cause: The form or pattern of a thing.
- Efficient Cause: The agent of change.
- Final Cause: The purpose or end goal.
Understanding these causes is essential for scientific knowledge.