Aristotle’s Politics: A Study of Virtue and Governance
Aristotle’s Politics
The Intersection of Ethics and Politics
Aristotle’s Politics, a mature work reflecting his empirical philosophy, examines the laws of various cities, distinguishing his political philosophy from Plato’s. Unlike Plato’s theoretical idealism, Aristotle’s approach is pragmatic, grounded in the realities of each society. He views politics as a practical science, emphasizing observation and experience. Similar to his ethics, there are no universal formulas or ideal models in his political thought.
The Intertwined Nature of Ethics and Politics
A key feature of Aristotle’s politics is the relationship between ethics and politics. Ethics focuses on the individual, while politics concerns the city. Ethics naturally leads to politics because individual happiness is achieved within the city, among other human beings. Good governance is essential for a happy life. Aristotle questions whether one can be truly happy in a poorly governed city. He also emphasizes the city’s role in education, arguing that a corrupt city cannot produce virtuous individuals capable of happiness. Thus, politics becomes an extension of, and superior to, ethics.
The City and the Individual
Just as ethics is subordinate to politics, the individual is subordinate to the city. Humans are not self-sufficient and require the city to thrive. The city, however, is self-sufficient and can exist without any specific individual. Aristotle uses an organismic metaphor: the city is a body, and the individual is merely a part. This metaphor has implications for social structure, with the Greek polis comprising distinct classes like citizens, foreigners, and slaves, each with different rights.
The Nature of Man
Humans need the city for survival, not just practically, but morally. Aristotle describes humans as “animals with logos” (reason, thought, speech). In the context of politics, logos is best understood as “word,” making humans the speaking animal, capable of expressing ideas and feelings. This communicative dimension connects to another characterization: humans are “political” animals, meaning “social.” Humans develop in society, which is essential for happiness. Aristotle believes in the natural sociability of humans, stating that someone living apart from others is either a beast or a god.
Aristotle distinguishes between “gregariousness” (living in groups) and natural sociability. Citizens actively participate in public forums and decision-making, setting them apart from animals that merely live in groups. Humans need others and need to participate in the city’s institutions.
The City as the Locus of the Good Life
Some scholars note a tension between the “social animal” of Politics and the theoretical life proposed in Nicomachean Ethics. A possible compromise is that the happiest life is theoretical, perhaps godlike, but humans must also live in relation to others. Human happiness is achieved through practicing virtues and leading a practical life. Virtues are learned in the polis, making life in society a prerequisite for wisdom.
The city becomes the place of the good life, of happiness. No one can be truly happy outside the city. Humans are “humanized” within the city’s walls, where they can achieve their full potential. This reinforces the connection between ethics and politics: the end goal is happiness, attainable only within the city. Human sociability leads Aristotle to view the polis as the space of happiness, and the city’s role is to create the conditions for human fulfillment.
Forms of Government
Aristotle classifies forms of government based on two criteria: the number of rulers and their purpose. Good governments rule for the common good, while degenerate governments rule for particular interests.
- Good Governments: Monarchy (rule by one), aristocracy (rule by a small group), and republic (constitutional government).
- Bad Governments: Tyranny, oligarchy, and demagogy (“democracy”).
The Best Form of Government
Aristotle’s pragmatic approach avoids prescribing a single ideal model. He acknowledges the need to consider geographical, social, and cultural factors. He seems to favor a middle-class aristocracy, ruled by the best, connecting ethics and politics once again. Virtue is associated with the mean, suggesting that a moderate government is best. However, Aristotle recognizes that different circumstances may require different models, adapting his theory to the specific context.