Armed Peace & WWI: Alliances, Conflicts, and Global Aftermath
Armed Peace (1890-1914)
A system of alliances formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Italy, initially intended to isolate France and maintain balance in the Balkans. This period saw the emergence of two major power blocs:
- Triple Entente: France, Great Britain, and Russia.
- Triple Alliance: Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany.
Colonial claims led to two crises in Morocco (1905-1911). The Eastern Question arose as Russia supported Bulgaria and Serbia to prevent them from falling under Austro-Hungarian control.
The Summer Crisis of 1914
Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia on July 23, threatening war if Serbia did not allow them to investigate the assassination. Serbia’s refusal led Austria-Hungary to declare war on July 28. Germany subsequently declared war on Russia and France, prompting Great Britain to declare war on Germany. Italy remained neutral, effectively breaking the Triple Alliance.
World War I (1914-1918)
The conflict escalated into a global war with the involvement of the United States, Greece, Romania, and Italy, who joined the Triple Entente.
War Moves (August 1914)
The Schlieffen Plan, a German strategy involving a surprise attack on France through Belgium, was initially successful but stalled at the Marne, just miles from Paris. Russia suffered defeats at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes.
Positional Warfare (1914-1917)
The German offensive failed. Battles at Verdun (initiated by Germany) and the Somme (initiated by Britain) resulted in massive casualties with limited territorial gains.
Side Attacks:
- Mediterranean: A British attempt to seize the Dardanelles (Gallipoli Campaign) failed.
- German Colonies: Conquered by British and Japanese forces.
- Middle East: Allied forces, with the support of Arab nationalists, captured Ottoman territories.
The Crisis of 1917
The Russian Revolution overthrew the Tsarist regime and established a communist government. Russia withdrew from the war, ceding territory to Germany.
The United States, initially neutral but supplying the Allies, entered the war after Germany sank American ships.
The 1918 Offensive and the End of the War
A German spring offensive failed. With U.S. support, the Allies launched a counteroffensive, leading to the surrender of the Central Powers.
World War I was the bloodiest war to date. It introduced the concept of a “war economy,” where governments controlled production and trade. Women entered the workforce in large numbers, leading to advancements in women’s suffrage.
The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles (1919-1920)
The League of Nations was formed in 1920 to promote peaceful resolution of international disputes.
The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, including war reparations, troop reductions, and demilitarization of the Rhineland.
The Paris Peace Conference encompassed several treaties aimed at preventing the resurgence of Germany, achieving a balance of power, and isolating Russia.
Territorial Changes:
- Germany lost all its colonies to France and Great Britain.
- Austria-Hungary was dissolved into Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia.
- The Ottoman Empire became the Republic of Turkey, losing significant territory.
- Poland gained territory from Russia, Austria, and Germany, including access to the sea via the Danzig corridor.
- Romania gained Transylvania from Austria-Hungary.
The 1920s
Economic power shifted from Great Britain to the United States. War reparations imposed on Germany led to inflation and unemployment.
Democratic regimes emerged, but social tensions and fear of communist revolutions led to the rise of dictatorships, such as Mussolini’s fascist regime in Italy in 1922 and Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship in Spain.
France occupied the Ruhr region in 1923 when Germany failed to pay reparations. German workers responded with passive resistance.
The Dawes Plan provided U.S. loans to Germany to facilitate reparation payments. The Locarno Treaties (1925) saw Germany recognize its borders and join the League of Nations.
The 1930s Crisis
Overproduction, speculation, and the stock market crash of 1929 (Black Thursday) triggered a global economic crisis.
Consequences of the Crisis:
- Increased unemployment.
- Reduced consumption.
- Business failures.
- Reduced lending.
The crisis spread globally due to reduced U.S. imports and repatriation of capital loaned through the Dawes Plan.
President Roosevelt’s New Deal increased government intervention in the U.S. economy.
Triumph of Political Extremism
Loss of public trust led to the rise of communist and right-wing parties and the establishment of dictatorships.
Mass Society
Increased popular participation in politics, the rise of mass media, universal suffrage, and mass political parties characterized this era.
Improved nutrition, new leisure concepts, and reduced working hours also emerged.
The women’s suffrage movement achieved victories, such as Clara Campoamor’s success in Spain in 1918 and women’s suffrage in the United Kingdom.