Athens vs. Sparta: Democracy, Oligarchy, and Ancient Greek Conflict
Athenian Democracy: Origins and Structure
At the end of the Archaic Period, early forms of democracy emerged in Greece. However, significant portions of the population, including women, slaves, and non-citizens (those not born into the citizenry, e.g., in Sparta), were excluded from political participation.
The Athenian Model of Democracy
- The Athenian democratic system was introduced around 508 BC.
- It established an Assembly where every eligible male citizen had the right to vote and speak.
Key Figures: Pericles
Pericles was a highly influential and popular politician in Athens. He is renowned for overseeing the rebuilding of the Acropolis. He was elected strategos (general) annually for many years until his death.
Government Roles: Officials and Tribes
- Athens was divided into 10 tribes.
- These tribes rotated responsibility for leading the Council (Boule) and managing the daily affairs of the state.
- Each tribe also annually elected one of the 10 military commanders (strategoi).
Unique Practices: Ostracism
Annually, Athenians could vote to banish a politician considered potentially detrimental to the state. They wrote the individual’s name on a pottery shard known as an ostrakon. If a sufficient number of votes were cast against someone (the text mentions 600, though often a quorum of 6,000 total votes was required for the process), that person faced exile from Athens for 10 years.
Citizen Duties: The Legal System
Participation in the legal system was a fundamental duty for Athenian citizens, particularly as there were no professional lawyers. All male citizens over the age of 30 were expected to volunteer for jury service.
Spartan Society: Military Power and Governance
By the Classical Period, Sparta had established itself as the preeminent military power in Greece.
Spartan Government Overview
- Spartan government featured a unique mix of elements: two kings, a council of elders (Gerousia), and an Assembly (Apella).
- Tradition credits the legendary lawgiver Lycurgus with establishing Sparta’s distinctive laws and system of government.
Dual Kingship
Sparta was ruled by two hereditary kings simultaneously, drawn from the two most prominent families: the Agiads and the Eurypontids. They ruled jointly and held command of the army in times of war.
The Council of Elders (Gerousia)
The Gerousia consisted of the two kings along with 28 council members. These members were Spartan citizens over the age of 60, elected for life, and held significant influence.
The Assembly (Apella)
Proposals formulated by the Gerousia needed ratification by the Apella, the Assembly comprising all male Spartan citizens over 30. The Assembly likely did not debate or amend proposals; instead, they voted ‘yes’ or ‘no’ by shouting (acclamation), with the decision going to the loudest group.
Conflict and Consequences: The Peloponnesian War
Origins: Rising Tensions and Alliances
Growing Athenian power, including the fortification of their city and port (Piraeus), fostered suspicion and rivalry with Sparta.
The Peloponnesian League
Concerned about military strength, Sparta had formed a network of alliances primarily with Peloponnesian states, known as the Peloponnesian League, starting in the 6th century BC.
The War Years (431-404 BC)
The Peloponnesian War erupted, fundamentally a conflict between the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League and the Athenian-led Delian League. An immediate trigger involved conflict between Corinth (Sparta’s ally) and its colony Corcyra (modern Corfu), with Athens intervening to support Corcyra.
Early Hardships: Plague and Raids
In 430 BC, Athens was devastated by a severe plague that lasted approximately four years, killing about a quarter of its population. Concurrently, Spartan forces repeatedly invaded Attica, destroying the land around Athens.
Key Turning Points
The war saw shifting fortunes. The Athenian politician Alcibiades notoriously defected, providing counsel to Sparta. Athens began to lose the support of crucial allies.
Final Stages: Spartan Victory and Athenian Surrender
Under the capable leadership of Admiral Lysander, the Spartans achieved a decisive naval victory at Aegospotami, capturing a large portion of the Athenian fleet (around 170 ships) and executing thousands of prisoners. Besieged and facing starvation, Athens was finally forced to surrender in 404 BC. Sparta imposed terms, including the temporary abolition of Athenian democracy (though it was later restored).
Aftermath: Weakening and Macedonian Conquest
The long and brutal Peloponnesian War left both Athens and Sparta, along with their respective allies, significantly weakened. This power vacuum ultimately facilitated the conquest of the Greek city-states by King Philip II of Macedon in 338 BC.