Aviation Knowledge: Instruments, Regulations, and Weather
Aviation Knowledge
Psychology and Physiology
ADM (Aeronautical Decision Making)
ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.
- Hazardous Attitudes: Anti-authority, impulsivity, macho, resignation, invulnerability.
- Antidotes: Follow the rules, not so fast think first, taking chances is foolish, I am not helpless, it could happen to me.
- Spatial Disorientation: Occurs when a pilot’s perception of direction does not agree with reality. Use flight instruments to prevent it.
- Hypoxia: Insufficient oxygen to the body. Symptoms include tunnel vision, cyanosis, and impaired judgment.
- Hyperventilation: Excessive breathing that can lead to symptoms like suffocation and drowsiness. Slow down the breathing rate to overcome it.
- Fatigue: Leads to loss of accuracy and impaired judgment. Avoid flying while fatigued.
Automation
Automation in aircraft has proven to present new hazards and can create much larger errors. Humans are characteristically poor monitors of automated systems.
Navigation Instruments
VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range)
- Provides bearing information to and from the station.
- CDI (Course Deviation Indicator): Shows the aircraft’s position relative to the selected course.
- OBS (Omni-Bearing Selector): Used to select the desired radial.
DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
- Provides distance information from the station.
- Accuracy: Greater at higher altitudes and closer to the station.
GPS (Global Positioning System)
- Provides precise position and navigation information.
- RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring): Ensures the accuracy and integrity of GPS signals.
Magnetic Compass
- Subject to errors due to magnetic dip and variation.
- Use for backup navigation and during taxi.
Aircraft Instruments
Pitot-Static System
- Altimeter: Measures altitude based on atmospheric pressure.
- Airspeed Indicator (ASI): Measures airspeed based on the difference between ram air pressure and static pressure.
- Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI): Measures the rate of climb or descent.
Gyroscopic Instruments
- Attitude Indicator: Shows the aircraft’s pitch and bank attitude.
- Heading Indicator: Shows the aircraft’s heading.
- Turn Coordinator: Indicates the rate of turn and the quality of the turn (coordinated or uncoordinated).
Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)
- Displays flight information electronically.
- PFD (Primary Flight Display): Replaces traditional flight instruments.
- MFD (Multi-Function Display): Provides additional information such as navigation and weather.
Clearances and Procedures
IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)
- Clearance: Authorization from ATC to proceed under IFR.
- Departure Procedures (DP): Predefined routes for departing from an airport.
- Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STAR): Predefined routes for arriving at an airport.
- Holding Patterns: Used to delay an aircraft while maintaining a specific position.
- Approach Procedures: Predefined methods for descending and landing at an airport.
- Missed Approach: Procedure to follow if the approach cannot be completed.
VFR (Visual Flight Rules)
- VFR-on-Top: IFR clearance to operate above a cloud layer in VMC conditions.
Communication Failure
- Follow specific procedures based on the situation and the type of airspace.
Enroute Charts and Procedures
Enroute Charts
- Depict airways, navaids, airspace boundaries, and other information for navigating between airports.
Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA)
- Lowest altitude that guarantees obstacle clearance and adequate navigation signal reception.
Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA)
- Lowest altitude that guarantees obstacle clearance within 22 NM of a VOR.
Approach Charts and Procedures
Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP)
- Provide guidance for descending and landing at an airport under instrument conditions.
- Types of IAPs: ILS, LOC, VOR, GPS, RNAV.
Precision Approach
- Provides both lateral and vertical guidance (e.g., ILS).
Non-Precision Approach
- Provides lateral guidance only (e.g., VOR).
Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA)
- Lowest altitude to which descent is authorized on a non-precision approach.
Decision Height (DH)
- Height above touchdown at which a decision must be made to continue the approach or execute a missed approach.
Visual Approach
- Approach conducted under VFR conditions after being cleared for an instrument approach.
Contact Approach
- Approach conducted under VFR conditions when the pilot has the airport in sight.
Aircraft Operations
Takeoff and Landing
- V-Speeds: Specific airspeeds used for takeoff and landing performance.
- Wake Turbulence: Generated by aircraft, especially heavy and large ones. Be aware of its effects and avoid flying through it.
Icing
- Types of Icing: Structural, induction, rime, clear.
- Effects of Icing: Increased drag, reduced lift, and potential loss of control.
- Deicing and Anti-icing Systems: Used to remove or prevent ice accumulation.
High Altitude Operations
- Hypoxia: Risk increases with altitude. Supplemental oxygen is required above certain altitudes.
- Pressurization: Maintains a comfortable cabin altitude at high altitudes.
Airspace
- Class A: IFR operations only.
- Class B: Requires ATC clearance.
- Class C: Requires two-way radio communication.
- Class D: Requires two-way radio communication within the airspace.
- Class E: Controlled airspace where IFR and VFR operations are permitted.
- Class G: Uncontrolled airspace.
IFR Flight Planning
Flight Plan
- Provides information about the intended flight to ATC and search and rescue services.
Alternate Airport
- Required for IFR flight plans when weather conditions at the destination airport are below certain minimums.
Weather Information
- TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast): Provides detailed weather forecast for a specific airport.
- METAR (Meteorological Aerodrome Report): Provides current weather conditions at a specific airport.
- AIRMET (Airmen’s Meteorological Information): Advises of weather conditions that may be hazardous to light aircraft.
- SIGMET (Significant Meteorological Information): Advises of weather conditions that may be hazardous to all aircraft.
Aviation Weather and Thunderstorms and Turbulence
Atmospheric Stability
- Determines the type of clouds and precipitation that will form.
- Stable Air: Smooth air, stratiform clouds, continuous precipitation.
- Unstable Air: Turbulent air, cumuliform clouds, showery precipitation.
Fronts
- Boundaries between air masses of different temperatures and moisture content.
- Cold Front: Associated with thunderstorms, gusty winds, and heavy precipitation.
- Warm Front: Associated with stratiform clouds, steady precipitation, and smooth air.
Thunderstorms
- Produce hazardous weather conditions such as lightning, hail, strong winds, and turbulence.
- Types of Thunderstorms: Single-cell, multi-cell, squall line, supercell.
Turbulence
- Irregular motion of the air that can cause discomfort and difficulty controlling the aircraft.
- Types of Turbulence: Convective, mechanical, mountain wave, clear air turbulence (CAT).
Icing
- Accumulation of ice on the aircraft can increase drag, reduce lift, and affect controllability.
- Types of Icing: Structural, induction, rime, clear.
Aviation Weather Services and Charts
Surface Analysis Chart
- Depicts current weather systems, fronts, pressure patterns, and other surface weather features.
Weather Depiction Chart
- Provides a graphical representation of current weather conditions.
Radar Summary Chart
- Shows areas of precipitation and thunderstorms.
Constant Pressure Charts
- Depict winds and temperatures aloft at different pressure levels.
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
- Forecast areas of significant weather such as thunderstorms, turbulence, and icing.
Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FB)
- Provides forecast winds and temperatures at different altitudes.
Pilot Reports (PIREPs)
- Reports of actual weather conditions encountered by pilots.
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
- Continuous broadcast of recorded airport and weather information.
Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)
- Automated system that provides current weather conditions at an airport.
Runway Condition Codes (RwyCC)
- Numerical codes that describe the condition of a runway surface.