Baroque Art and Architecture: Origins and Evolution
Baroque: The Term’s Origin and Evolution
The term “Baroque” surged in the 16th century in Spain and Portugal, initially describing pearls of irregular form. Later, it was extended to characterize granitic rocks. In 1690, the term was introduced in France with a similar meaning. By the mid-18th century, it was comprehensively used in dictionaries of the French Academy to describe odd-shaped and irregular objects. In 1788, the *Encyclopédie Méthodique* used it to describe extravagant architecture.
In the 19th century, the Italians adopted the word, and it subsequently spread to the Germans, marking its final recognition. The German art historian Jacob Burckhardt used “Baroque” in his work *Cicerone* to describe an artistic movement. Cornelius Gurlitt published a study on Baroque, Rococo, and Classicism in 1887. In 1888, Heinrich Wölfflin published *Renaissance and Baroque*. In 1921, Werner Weisbach considered the style to be that of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, linking it to religious and economic factors.
The Emergence of the Baroque Style (1584-1624)
Between 1584 and 1624, a calmer style emerged, transitioning from Mannerism to Baroque. The Counter-Reformation, particularly the Council of Trent (1545-1563), significantly influenced this shift. Young artists like Caravaggio and Bernini sought to break away from Mannerism. Following the Council of Trent, the Church aimed to address criticisms and reaffirm its doctrines. The sack of Rome in 1527 by the imperial troops of Charles V had diminished Rome’s prominence, making Venice a major artistic center in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Rome was just beginning to recover from this devastation.
The Council of Trent recommended that the Church should communicate through the stories of the mysteries of our redemption, depicted in paintings or other representations. This would instruct and confirm the people in their faith, encouraging them to remember and meditate continually on acts of faith. Key figures like Philip II and the Jesuits, particularly St. Ignatius of Loyola, played a crucial role in disseminating these ideas worldwide.
Themes in Baroque Art
Patronage, as seen in the Renaissance, remained a significant factor, with the Church sponsoring many works. The urban reforms of Sixtus V (1585-1590) also played a role. Representations of the lives of contemporary saints were common, as they served as relatable models for the people. A mix of different periods was employed to enhance understanding. Allegory continued to be used to promote the values of individuals, and mythology remained popular due to a surge in collectors of classical art. Realism began to gain prominence, and portraiture became increasingly important. Still life emerged as a new genre.
Chronology and Regional Variations
- High Baroque or Full Baroque (1624-1700): This period, marked by Bernini’s Baldacchino (1624), saw the emergence of grand masters whose individual styles defined the Baroque.
- Rococo (1700-1760): Originating in France as a decorative style, Rococo spread to other countries.
Regional Styles
- Italy:
- Popular and bourgeois style, retaining the influence of the previous period.
- Dominated by decor, accepting French influence or Rococo.
- Church and government favored a measured Baroque Classicism.
- Spain:
- Exalted or *castizo*, popular and bourgeois.
- Classicist or academic.
- Central Europe: Rococo decoration flourished, with grand buildings showing Italian and French influences.
Italy’s division into states led to stylistic variations. In the 16th century, Charles V and Philip II’s conflicts with France impacted Italy. Spain controlled Naples and the Two Sicilies and exerted significant influence in the northern region, where it fought with France over Milan. The Duchy of Savoy, however, remained a Spanish ally.