Baroque Art and Architecture: Styles, Context, and Masters
Understanding the Baroque Term
We use the term Baroque in two ways: as an aesthetic category applicable to any era, contrasting with the Classic, and as the prevalent artistic style in Europe and America during the 17th century and the first half of the 18th century. It was not a homogeneous style, presenting various trends, and the first half of the 18th century saw the derivation of Rococo. The term was contextualized by Eugenio d’Ors. Key contrasts defining Baroque versus Classicism include:
- Symmetry vs. Disorder
- Equilibrium vs. Motion
- Light vs. Contrast/Shadow
- Restraint vs. Recharging/Abundant Adornment
- Unity vs. Fragmentation
- Idealism vs. Realism
- Reason vs. Emotion
The word “baroque” originates from a term for a deformed pearl. The Baroque style is characterized by the dynamism of forms, the search for surprising effects, a play between appearance and reality, and a taste for contrasts. Baroque is often seen as a break with the classical and idealistic ideals of the Renaissance, but this departure began earlier with Michelangelo and Mannerist art from 1530 onwards, paving the way for the Baroque.
Historical Context of the Baroque Era
The cradle of the Baroque was Rome, but by the mid-century, Paris became a driving force. The two great patrons of the Baroque were the Catholic Church and the absolute monarchies. The Church used Baroque art as an instrument of the Counter-Reformation. The 17th century faced financial difficulties and crises, contrasting with scientific and cultural advances. It was a century of famines, crop failures, and widespread awareness of misery, leading to pessimism and an escape from reality into festivities, spectacles, theatre, and music. However, in Protestant countries like Holland and England, where parliamentarism was developing, a more intimate, less ostentatious art form emerged.
The Spanish Golden Age Amidst Decline
The 17th century marked the decline of Spain, known as the Siglo de Oro paradoxically. This period saw economic impoverishment, the loss of its European empire, and cultural isolation. Yet, in stark contrast, it was a golden age for the plastic arts (sculpture and painting) and literature.
Venetian Renaissance Influences
Key Venetian Artists and Characteristics
Characteristics of Venetian painting, influential for the Baroque, include luminous atmospheres, emphasis on light and color, loose brushwork, and sensual female nudes.
- Giorgione: Sleeping Venus, Pastoral Concert, The Tempest.
- Titian: Master of various genres. Religious: Pesaro Madonna, Crowning with Thorns. Portraits/Historical: Charles V at Mühlberg. Mythological: Danaë, Venus and Adonis.
- Veronese: Known for luxury, large crowds, and vibrant color. Example: The Wedding at Cana, Venus and Adonis.
- Tintoretto: Dramatic compositions. Example: Christ Washing the Disciples’ Feet (notable for foreshortening, diagonals, expressiveness).
Spanish Renaissance Architecture Examples
Plateresque Style
Examples: Façade of the University of Salamanca, Church of the Convent of San Esteban (Salamanca).
Purist Style
Characteristics: Monumentality, sobriety. Examples: Puerta de Bisagra (Toledo), Alcázar de Toledo (designed by Alonso de Covarrubias), Façade of the University of Alcalá de Henares (designed by Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón), Palace of Charles V in the Alhambra (Pedro Machuca), Granada Cathedral (Diego de Siloé).
Herrerian Style
Named after Juan de Herrera. Example: El Escorial. Features: imposing façade, towers, slate spires with stone spheres, pyramids, Greek cross plan within a square, narthex at the foot of the basilica.
El Greco: Mannerism and Spirituality in Spain
Characteristics: Unique use of light and color (blues, greens, yellows), muscular yet elongated figures, figura serpentinata (twisting pose). Early works: Modena Triptych, Healing of the Blind Man, Pietà. Spanish period: Intense spirituality, Mannerist traits, figures seemingly floating. Key works: The Disrobing of Christ (El Espolio), The Martyrdom of Saint Maurice, The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, The Baptism of Christ, The Nobleman with his Hand on his Chest.
Italian Baroque Architecture Masterpieces
Key Architects and Works
- Gian Lorenzo Bernini: Baldacchino and Colonnade of St. Peter’s Square, Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi.
- Francesco Borromini: San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Sant’Ivo alla Sapienza.
Also notable: Trevi Fountain (Nicola Salvi, completed by others).
French Baroque Example
Palace of Versailles, particularly the Hall of Mirrors (designed by Jules Hardouin-Mansart and Charles Le Brun).
The Dynamism of Baroque Sculpture: Bernini
Gian Lorenzo Bernini dominated Baroque sculpture. Characteristics: Emphasis on motion, dramatic curves, intense expression, use of chiaroscuro (light and shadow contrasts).
- David
- Apollo and Daphne
- Ecstasy of Saint Teresa
Defining Features of Baroque Painting
General characteristics include:
- Naturalism: Depiction of reality, often unidealized.
- Primacy of color over drawing/line.
- Exploration of psychological states.
- Use of foreshortening and strong diagonals.
- Emphasis on movement and compositional imbalance.
- Dramatic use of lighting and shadows (chiaroscuro).
- Tenebrism: Extreme contrast of light and dark, with darkness dominating.
Caravaggio and Tenebrism
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio pioneered tenebrism. Characteristics: Neutral, dark backgrounds creating mystery; depiction of divine figures as ordinary, vulgar people. Key works: Early: Young Sick Bacchus, Boy with a Basket of Fruit, Victorious Cupid (Amor Vincit Omnia), The Musicians. Mature: Death of the Virgin, Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Conversion of Saint Paul, Supper at Emmaus, Crucifixion of Saint Peter, David with the Head of Goliath.
Flemish Baroque: Rubens
Peter Paul Rubens epitomized Flemish Baroque. Characteristics: Dynamic movement, strong diagonals, bombastic and muscular figures, rich colors (often with dark, earthy tones), loose and energetic brushstrokes. Key works: Adoration of the Magi, Equestrian Portrait of the Duke of Lerma, The Elevation of the Cross, The Descent from the Cross, The Triumph of the Eucharist series, The Three Graces, The Judgment of Paris, The Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus.
Dutch Golden Age Painting
Rembrandt van Rijn
Rembrandt mastered light and shadow. Characteristics: Subtle transitions between light and dark areas (less harsh than Caravaggio), moderation and deep humanity in religious works, insightful group portraits. Key works: The Supper at Emmaus, The Descent from the Cross, Bathsheba at Her Bath, The Slaughtered Ox, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, The Night Watch (The Company of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van Ruytenburch).
Johannes Vermeer
Jan Vermeer of Delft focused on intimate scenes. Characteristics: Depiction of daily domestic life, sense of order and calm, pleasant and quiet atmosphere, masterful handling of soft, natural light. Key works: The Milkmaid, Woman Holding a Balance (often mistitled The Letter), The Art of Painting (The Painter in his Studio), The Little Street, The Lacemaker, View of Delft.