Baroque Era: Language, Court Life, and Societal Shifts
Regarding language, the discussion revolves around which language to use, be it the Tuscan of Petrarch, that of the time… ultimately settling on that of Lombardy. There are numerous quotations from classical sources (perhaps not common in everyday conversation, but normal for scholars), as well as references to real people, lending an air of authenticity.
Within The Courtier, the ideal character is one who strikes a balance between opposites: weapons and letters, education, activity and passivity... a synthesis that creates a well-rounded individual, capable of navigating diverse situations. It’s important to the idea that the court should behave with ease and simplicity, although the work is important to play hard and be done with naturalness, Sprezzatura.
Montaigne and the Essays
Montaigne (Eyquem), hailing from the wealthy merchant class of Bordeaux, was educated in humanistic ideals. He dedicated himself to study, reading, and reflection in his castle, also undertaking journeys. He wrote short pieces, Essais, first published in 1580. These essays, like a storehouse of thoughts, inaugurated a new genre: a series of reflections on his life, his experiences in the pursuit of wisdom, understood as knowledge of human reason. This wisdom was based on writing and observation of men, presented not as observational data, but expressed as an inner self, with Montaigne himself as the example.
The Rise of the Baroque
The writings of Montaigne, along with the political processes of the time, reveal the growing crisis of humanism. Humanists of the second half of the 16th century, once dedicated to perfecting humanity, became scholars specializing in areas like currency and rhetoric, facing doctrinal and political risks. An exception were those engaged in natural science, mathematics, and experimental science, though their pursuits came at a cost for some.
Keep in mind the Council of Trent, a pivotal event shaping the Baroque era, reinforcing the authority of the papacy and the papal court. This translated into a strict orthodoxy, enforced in two ways:
- Dogma: Emotionally-charged acceptance of imposed dogmatic principles.
- The typical layman would look the same, what were once citizens will now be subjects obedience to the upper castes and the recruitment of these lower classes for obedience.
The tension between the aristocracy and the crown was resolved by the aristocracy acting as a sponge for privilege from the crown. Court society reached its peak in Spain and France, particularly under Louis XIV in the second half of the 17th century.
The unified vision of European society under Humanism, seeking universal principles, disintegrated. The Baroque period was marked by radical nationalism. Political struggles intertwined with religious strife, creating a divide between Christianity and non-Christian entities (the Ottoman Empire) and theoretical opposition between Protestant and Catholic political powers, subject to the political powers in each state.
The political confrontation between Spain and France led to their depletion, resulting in the rise of England as a major power, though its cultural role remained less prominent.
Furthermore, the late 16th and 17th centuries saw economic hardship and a lack of peace, leading to widespread depression and a sense that the world was fundamentally flawed.
Maraval defines this culture as directed, massive, urban, and conservative. Guided by ecclesiastical powers and courtiers, it was urban due to the significant weight of urban masses. It was a conservative mass culture where all news was viewed with suspicion, except in specific fields.
Writers of this era shared common elements:
- A widespread sense of crisis, resulting in pessimistic literature. Things seemed hopeless, and humans appeared incapable of finding solutions.