Baroque Literature: Lyric, Novel, and Theater
Lyric of the Baroque
Themes and Concepts
The Baroque lyric continues themes of love, morality, and satire from previous eras, but it also incorporates elements from popular and folk traditions. For example, the sonnet is used for satirical purposes. While Renaissance themes persist, a sense of disillusionment and melancholy pervades many works, reflecting a view of the world as an illusion. Common themes include:
- Beatus ille, Golden Mean, and contempt of court: Inherited from the Renaissance, these themes express a stoic attitude towards worldly affairs.
- Tempus fugit: This theme emphasizes the fleeting nature of beauty and time’s destructive power, as exemplified in Rodrigo Caro’s “Song to the Ruins of Italica.”
- Carpe diem: The theme of seizing the day is less prominent than in the Renaissance, as enjoyment is seen as transient and overshadowed by the awareness of time’s passage.
The Baroque lyrical concept involves creating unusual relationships between elements within a poem to deepen its meaning and enrich it with nuances. Baltasar Gracián explored this concept in his work “Agudeza y arte de ingenio,” which analyzes how writers achieve impactful effects through wit and ingenuity. Techniques used to achieve this concept include hyperbaton, comparisons, metaphors, strong contrasts, and wordplay. Literary theory distinguishes between two aesthetic tendencies within this concept:
- Conceptismo: Develops the concept with simple and ornate language, as seen in Quevedo’s sonnets.
- Culteranismo: Employs highly ornate language, complex syntax, and Latinisms, as exemplified by Góngora’s poetry.
The Novel in the Baroque
While some Baroque narratives exist in verse, prose fiction dominates the period. Subgenres from earlier periods continue to develop:
- Pastoral novel: Represented by Lope de Vega.
- Greek novel: Rooted in the medieval “Book of Apollonius” and exemplified by Cervantes’s posthumous work “Persiles and Segismunda.”
- Courtesan novel: Set in high society and exploring themes of love and romantic disappointment.
- Picaresque novel: Continuing the tradition of “Lazarillo de Tormes,” with examples like Quevedo’s “El Buscón.”
The Baroque period also witnesses the birth of the modern novel, marked by the publication of Cervantes’s “Don Quixote.”
Theater in the Baroque: Subjects and Forms
The popularity of theater during the Baroque period led to a surge in play production. Permanent theaters (corrales de comedias) were established, and theater companies gained financial independence. Different types of theater emerged based on audience and subject matter:
- Religious Theater: Performances, often held in public squares during Corpus Christi, included autos sacramentales, a genre derived from medieval and Renaissance traditions. Pedro Calderón de la Barca excelled in this genre, with works like “The Great Theater of the World” and “The Great Market of the World.”
- Court Theater: Initially performed in palace halls for royalty and nobility, court theater later moved to purpose-built theaters inspired by Greco-Roman aesthetics. Comedies set in aristocratic environments, featuring monarchs, nobles, and their servants, were popular. Lope de Vega’s works, such as “Punishment Without Revenge” and “The Dog in the Manger,” exemplify this genre.
- Popular Theater: Performed daily in corrales de comedias, popular theater aimed for entertainment. Genres included cloak-and-dagger comedies and plays addressing social issues like the power of the people (e.g., Lope de Vega’s “Fuenteovejuna”) or the transgression of societal norms (e.g., Tirso de Molina’s works exploring the role of women). To break up the long performances, short interludes were introduced:
- Loa: An introductory piece presenting the play.
- Entremés: A short comic interlude between the first and second acts. Cervantes excelled in this genre with works like “The Altarpiece of the Wonders.”
- Jácaras: Poems between the second and third acts, dealing with themes like murders and disputes.
- Mojiganga: A carnival-like procession of actors in costumes, dancing to music, serving as the play’s finale.
Cervantes attempted to reform the theater but ultimately failed. Lope de Vega, with his prolific output and theoretical treatise “New Art of Making Comedies” (1609), established a new concept of theater, coining the term “tragicomedy” (already present in “La Celestina”).