Biological Positivism and Criminology: Exploring the Biological Roots of Crime

Posted on Oct 13, 2024 in Psychology and Sociology

Biological Positivism in Criminology

Influence of Positivism on Biological Models of Crime

Positivism in criminology, stemming from the work of Cesare Lombroso, seeks to identify biological factors that contribute to criminal behavior. This approach contrasts with sociological and environmental theories of crime. The main areas of research within biological positivism include:

  1. Anthropometry
  2. Anthropology
  3. Biotypology
  4. Neurophysiology
  5. Endocrinology
  6. Criminal Genetics

1. Criminal Anthropometry

Criminal anthropometry, developed by Alphonse Bertillon, is a forensic technique for identifying offenders based on 11 body measurements. This method, known as Bertillonage, was widely used by police and prisons. It was eventually replaced by fingerprinting as the primary method of identification.

2. Anthropology

Lombroso’s theories were further investigated by anthropologists like Goring and Hooton.

A) The English Prison Doctor: Goring

Goring refuted Lombroso’s theory that criminals are born with recognizable physical traits. He conducted a comparative study of 3,000 incarcerated offenders and law-abiding citizens, using rigorous anatomical measurements. His findings showed no significant physical differences between the two groups, except for slightly lower height and weight among offenders (excluding fraudsters). Goring advocated for the use of statistical methods in studying criminal biotype and criticized Lombroso’s reliance on subjective observations. His research led to the Theory of the Inferiority of the Criminal, which posits that offenders exhibit:

  • Moral inferiority compared to normal groups.
  • An intellectual deficit, often compounded by a lack of education.

Goring argued that crime is not a result of free will, an abnormal personality, or environmental factors alone, but rather a consequence of an individual’s criminal propensity, which can be mental, moral, or physical.

B) The Anthropologist: Hooton

Hooton, in contrast to Goring, believed in the existence of criminal stigmata and the possibility of identifying degenerative characteristics specific to different offender subgroups. He was a defender of the Theory of Diversity, arguing that significant physical differences exist between criminals and non-criminals, such as size, thin lips, gray eyes, and tattoos. He believed that criminals were physically and mentally inferior to non-criminals, attributing this inferiority to hereditary factors rather than circumstantial ones.

3. Biotypology

Biotypology is a scientific discipline that studies the correlation between an individual’s physical characteristics and their psychological traits, including body type and temperament. It aims to establish a link between physical traits and criminal behavior.

A) German School: Kretschmer

Kretschmer developed a dual typology based on constitutional and characterological perspectives.

Constitutional Perspective:

  • Leptosomatic: Elongated and slender body, small head, pointed nose (e.g., Don Quixote).
  • Athletic: Well-developed bones and muscles, large chest and head (e.g., an inverted triangle).
  • Pyknic: Short and stout, round head, tendency to obesity (e.g., Sancho Panza).
  • Dysplastic: Exaggerated forms, including dwarfism and gigantism.
  • Mixed: A combination of the above types.

Characterological Perspective:

  • Schizothymic: Typically leptosomatic with an introverted temperament, further subdivided into hyperesthetic, intermediate, and anesthetic types. Schizophrenia is considered the extreme form of schizoid personality.
  • Cyclothymic: Extroverted individuals with a pyknic constitution, ranging from joyful to sad. Subcategories include hypomanic, syntonic, and phlegmatic.
  • Viscous: Individuals with an athletic build, ranging from leptosomatic to pyknic. They are generally peaceful and passive.

Kretschmer’s research suggested that pyknics have the lowest crime rates, leptosomatic individuals are prone to recidivism, and athletes exhibit the highest rates of violent crime.

B) American School: Sheldon, Glueck, and Cortes

Sheldon‘s typology is based on embryological development and identifies three layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.

Constitutional Typology:

  • Endomorph: Predominance of endoderm (viscera), similar to Kretschmer’s pyknic type.
  • Mesomorph: Predominance of mesoderm (muscles and bones), similar to the athletic type.
  • Ectomorph: Predominance of ectoderm (nervous tissue and epidermis), similar to the leptosomatic type.

Characterological Typology:

  • Viscerotonic: Endomorphs with an outgoing and sociable temperament.
  • Somatotonic: Mesomorphs with an energetic and aggressive temperament.
  • Cerebrotonic: Ectomorphs with a schizophrenic temperament, characterized by introversion and social isolation.

Sheldon, along with the Gluecks and Cortes, concluded that mesomorphs with a somatotonic temperament have the highest crime rates due to their physical strength, energy, and tendency towards aggression.

4. Neurophysiology

Neurophysiology utilizes electroencephalography (EEG) to study brain activity and its correlation with criminal behavior. Research has focused on identifying brain abnormalities associated with violent crimes and exploring the link between specific crimes committed by juveniles and brain dysfunction.

Eysenck linked the functioning of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) with introversion and extroversion. He argued that psychopaths, who exhibit extreme extroversion, have a poorly developed sense of conscience due to the functioning of their ANS. They have higher levels of arousal and require strong stimulation due to low cortical activation.

5. Endocrinology

Endocrinology investigates the relationship between hormonal imbalances and criminal behavior. Research has focused on:

  • Hormone Levels: Studies have explored the link between testosterone levels and male aggression, as well as the influence of hormonal fluctuations during menstruation on female criminality.
  • Deficiencies in Minerals and Vitamins: Deficiencies in B vitamins and imbalances in minerals like copper and magnesium can affect brain activity and behavior.
  • Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar levels can lead to irritability, anxiety, and depression.
  • Allergies: Nerve allergies can negatively impact behavior.
  • Environmental Pollutants: Exposure to lead and food additives has been linked to hyperactivity and aggressive behavior.

Other environmental factors, such as thermal, acoustic, and luminous stressors, can also influence behavior.

6. Criminal Genetics

Criminal genetics explores the role of heredity in criminal behavior. Research areas include:

  • Studies on Criminal Families: These studies have shown increased crime rates among descendants of criminals, particularly when both parents have a criminal history.
  • Twin Studies: Identical (monozygotic) twins exhibit higher rates of criminal concordance compared to fraternal (dizygotic) twins, suggesting a genetic influence on criminal behavior.
  • Adoption Studies: Adopted children with biological parents who have a criminal record are more likely to engage in criminal activity compared to those with biological parents without a criminal record, highlighting the importance of genetic factors.
  • Research on Chromosomal Anomalies: Certain chromosomal defects, such as Turner syndrome (XO) and Klinefelter syndrome (XXY), have been associated with behavioral problems and an increased risk of criminal behavior. Trisomy XYY has also been linked to hormonal disturbances, intellectual deficits, and aggression.

Conclusion

Biological positivism offers valuable insights into the biological factors that may contribute to criminal behavior. While it is crucial to acknowledge the ethical considerations surrounding this approach, continued research in this area can enhance our understanding of crime and inform the development of effective prevention and intervention strategies.