Biology

MACROEVOLUTION

production Of A New Species

based on a series of microevolutions

gradualism– series of small changes over time

punctu8d equilibrium– no change then sudden change

evidence=homologies ana2my, fossil record,

homologous molecules

bats & humans have

similar structure=related more than birds

selection pressure– conditions which cause individuals 2 survive

Directional-1 extreme- antibiotic resistance

stabilizing-intermediate-bb size 

disruptive-both extreme-fnch beak size 

sickle anemia 

stabilizing selection (intermediate phenotype)

Heterozygous advantage

additive + both dominant & recessive allele (survival)

Guppies-predication (selection pressure)

bottleneck effect–

disaster (random) causes survival of not

necessarily the fittest (Genetic drift)

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

effects (ALLELE FREQUENCY)

• specific #dom+recessive allele stays same over generations
• stable large population
• mating must be random
• no mutations (DNA)
• no migration
• no natural selection
• no environment change

DNA mutations & migrations create new alleles 

chromosomes R homologous therefor not the same

MICROEVOLUTION

geno/phenotype change in species

species only breed with each other

bacteria reproduces every 30 min 

genetic changes occur based on environment

antibiotic exposure=selection process

strongest survive + reproduce

Antibiotic resistant bacteria=human selection process

Darwin– born with long neck gene (giraffe) 

Lamarck– parents stretched neck so offspring was slightly

longer & so on

natural selection– species vs environment

artificial selection– breeder desire (dogs)

VIRUSES

not tru cells- proteins capsules (not alive) no organelles

bacteriophage- virus infecting bacteria

RNA viruses- enzyme reverse transcript converts

RNA 2 DNA integrated into host

hemagglutinin & neuraminidase

1-infleza 2 bind 2 upper airway cells 2- newly replicated virus

released from host cell

Lytic cycle-virus kills host during replication attachment infiltration

replication assembly

lysogenic phase-viral DNA integrated & replicated along

with that of host cell without killing it (herpes)

HIV-binds 2 CD4 membrane human immune cell HPV most common STD

liver cancer– Hep B,C 

sex transmitted- herpes,hpv,hep,ebv

hpv-causes genital warts which can cause cervical cancer (2 strains)

epstein-barr cause cancer

BACTERIA

prokaryotes

grahm posative-absorb dye no LPS layer

ghram neg-cant absorb dye LPS layner (resistant 2 penicillin

befits: produce oxygen recycling minerals fermenting foods acts as

normal flora

digestive tract bacteria:

• fermenting undigested substrates (sluble fiber) 
• regulating immune system 4 food
• prevent harmful bac
• vitamin k & biotin
• growth of cells 4 mucus layer
• lactic acid lower ph no pathogens
• carbs 2 short chain cids
• important mineral release (Mg, Ca, zinc,Pr(iron
• metabolize carcinogens

endospore– protective physical barrier protection form enviroment

shapes-cocci (round) rod (bacillli) spiral (spirochete)

antibiotic resistant genes– degrade antibiotics modify 2

non functional form form membrane pumps that remove antibio

opportunistic infections

live in human body & wait 4 immune compromise

kinds n old people 

E.coli, salm1lla, campylobacter- food poison

MRSA-multiantibiotic resistant(cuts wounds)

normal flora (5%) can become pathogenic (staphylococcus)

chlamydia+ gonorrhea bacteria sex

Conjugation-Acquire DNA from another BAC

transduction-acquire through viral infection 

transformation-acquire DNA from surrounding 

reproduce Binary fission (identical daughter cells)

bacteriocidal-killbac

bacteriostatic-freeze reproduction

tetanus produces toxins so doesbac

BINARY FISSION/MITOSSIS

BACTERIA

prokaryotes

grahm posative-absorb dye no LPS layer

ghram neg-cant absorb dye LPS layner (resistant 2 penicillin

befits: produce oxygen recycling minerals fermenting foods acts as

normal flora

digestive tract bacteria:

• fermenting undigested substrates (sluble fiber) 
• regulating immune system 4 food
• prevent harmful bac
• vitamin k & biotin
• growth of cells 4 mucus layer
• lactic acid lower ph no pathogens
• carbs 2 short chain cids
• important mineral release (Mg, Ca, zinc,Pr(iron
• metabolize carcinogens

endospore– protective physical barrier protection form enviroment

shapes-cocci (round) rod (bacillli) spiral (spirochete)

antibiotic resistant genes– degrade antibiotics modify 2

non functional form form membrane pumps that remove antibio

opportunistic infections

live in human body & wait 4 immune compromise

kinds n old people 

E.coli, salm1lla, campylobacter- food poison

MRSA-multiantibiotic resistant(cuts wounds)

normal flora (5%) can become pathogenic (staphylococcus)

chlamydia+ gonorrhea bacteria sex

Conjugation-Acquire DNA from another BAC

transduction-acquire through viral infection 

transformation-acquire DNA from surrounding 

reproduce Binary fission (identical daughter cells)

bacteriocidal-killbac

bacteriostatic-freeze reproduction

tetanus produces toxins so doesbac

BINARY FISSION/MITOSSIS

Bactria-prokaryotes produce asexually

identical copies of themselves are formed

one circular DNA molecule =plasmid(small extra DNA)

DNA Replication– no membrane bound organelles 

enzymes separate strands of DNA hydrogen bonds broken 2) DNA polymerase adds com nucleotides 

in both directions until new identical dna strands are created (binary fission=break off) bac daughters

Eukaryotic cells

cycle-two growth phases (G1,2) DNA replication (S)

cell division (M) both pro and euk have cycle

time mostly G1 (undergo normal func)

s replication G2 (checkpoint) 

mitosis (no more grow) chrom and organelles separate two new daughter cells identical to original

cytokinesis (plasm split)

mitosis two identical cells

karyotype-organization of chromosomes homologous pair

somatic-non sperm or egg (all 46 chrom) 

germ cells produce gametes-have diploid meiosis

interphase-prophase-metaphase-anaphase-telophase-cytokinesis

centrioles form- 92 chrom in cell, sisters attached at centromere-nuclear membrane breaks, spindle fibers appear-spindle fibers grab sisters and line them in middle-spindle pull broken chromosomes toward pole of cell-new membrane forms, spindle fibers break-active separation chevage furrow.