Biology
MACROEVOLUTION
production Of A New Species
based on a series of microevolutions
gradualism– series of small changes over time
punctu8d equilibrium– no change then sudden change
evidence=homologies ana2my, fossil record,
homologous molecules
bats & humans have
similar structure=related more than birds
selection pressure– conditions which cause individuals 2 survive
Directional-1 extreme- antibiotic resistance
stabilizing-intermediate-bb size
disruptive-both extreme-fnch beak size
sickle anemia
stabilizing selection (intermediate phenotype)
Heterozygous advantage
additive + both dominant & recessive allele (survival)
Guppies-predication (selection pressure)
bottleneck effect–
disaster (random) causes survival of not
necessarily the fittest (Genetic drift)
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
effects (ALLELE FREQUENCY)
- specific #dom+recessive allele stays same over generations
- stable large population
- mating must be random
- no mutations (DNA)
- no migration
- no natural selection
- no environment change
DNA mutations & migrations create new alleles
chromosomes R homologous therefor not the same
MICROEVOLUTION
geno/phenotype change in species
species only breed with each other
bacteria reproduces every 30 min
genetic changes occur based on environment
antibiotic exposure=selection process
strongest survive + reproduce
Antibiotic resistant bacteria=human selection process
Darwin– born with long neck gene (giraffe)
Lamarck– parents stretched neck so offspring was slightly
longer & so on
natural selection– species vs environment
artificial selection– breeder desire (dogs)
VIRUSES
not tru cells- proteins capsules (not alive) no organelles
bacteriophage- virus infecting bacteria
RNA viruses- enzyme reverse transcript converts
RNA 2 DNA integrated into host
hemagglutinin & neuraminidase
1-infleza 2 bind 2 upper airway cells 2- newly replicated virus
released from host cell
Lytic cycle-virus kills host during replication attachment infiltration
replication assembly
lysogenic phase-viral DNA integrated & replicated along
with that of host cell without killing it (herpes)
HIV-binds 2 CD4 membrane human immune cell HPV most common STD
liver cancer– Hep B,C
sex transmitted- herpes,hpv,hep,ebv
hpv-causes genital warts which can cause cervical cancer (2 strains)
epstein-barr cause cancer
BACTERIA
prokaryotes
grahm posative-absorb dye no LPS layer
ghram neg-cant absorb dye LPS layner (resistant 2 penicillin
befits: produce oxygen recycling minerals fermenting foods acts as
normal flora
digestive tract bacteria:
- fermenting undigested substrates (sluble fiber)
- regulating immune system 4 food
- prevent harmful bac
- vitamin k & biotin
- growth of cells 4 mucus layer
- lactic acid lower ph no pathogens
- carbs 2 short chain cids
- important mineral release (Mg, Ca, zinc,Pr(iron
- metabolize carcinogens
endospore– protective physical barrier protection form enviroment
shapes-cocci (round) rod (bacillli) spiral (spirochete)
antibiotic resistant genes– degrade antibiotics modify 2
non functional form form membrane pumps that remove antibio
opportunistic infections
live in human body & wait 4 immune compromise
kinds n old people
E.coli, salm1lla, campylobacter- food poison
MRSA-multiantibiotic resistant(cuts wounds)
normal flora (5%) can become pathogenic (staphylococcus)
chlamydia+ gonorrhea bacteria sex
Conjugation-Acquire DNA from another BAC
transduction-acquire through viral infection
transformation-acquire DNA from surrounding
reproduce Binary fission (identical daughter cells)
bacteriocidal-killbac
bacteriostatic-freeze reproduction
tetanus produces toxins so doesbac
BINARY FISSION/MITOSSIS
BACTERIA
prokaryotes
grahm posative-absorb dye no LPS layer
ghram neg-cant absorb dye LPS layner (resistant 2 penicillin
befits: produce oxygen recycling minerals fermenting foods acts as
normal flora
digestive tract bacteria:
- fermenting undigested substrates (sluble fiber)
- regulating immune system 4 food
- prevent harmful bac
- vitamin k & biotin
- growth of cells 4 mucus layer
- lactic acid lower ph no pathogens
- carbs 2 short chain cids
- important mineral release (Mg, Ca, zinc,Pr(iron
- metabolize carcinogens
endospore– protective physical barrier protection form enviroment
shapes-cocci (round) rod (bacillli) spiral (spirochete)
antibiotic resistant genes– degrade antibiotics modify 2
non functional form form membrane pumps that remove antibio
opportunistic infections
live in human body & wait 4 immune compromise
kinds n old people
E.coli, salm1lla, campylobacter- food poison
MRSA-multiantibiotic resistant(cuts wounds)
normal flora (5%) can become pathogenic (staphylococcus)
chlamydia+ gonorrhea bacteria sex
Conjugation-Acquire DNA from another BAC
transduction-acquire through viral infection
transformation-acquire DNA from surrounding
reproduce Binary fission (identical daughter cells)
bacteriocidal-killbac
bacteriostatic-freeze reproduction
tetanus produces toxins so doesbac
BINARY FISSION/MITOSSIS
Bactria-prokaryotes produce asexually
identical copies of themselves are formed
one circular DNA molecule =plasmid(small extra DNA)
DNA Replication– no membrane bound organelles
enzymes separate strands of DNA hydrogen bonds broken 2) DNA polymerase adds com nucleotides
in both directions until new identical dna strands are created (binary fission=break off) bac daughters
Eukaryotic cells
cycle-two growth phases (G1,2) DNA replication (S)
cell division (M) both pro and euk have cycle
time mostly G1 (undergo normal func)
s replication G2 (checkpoint)
mitosis (no more grow) chrom and organelles separate two new daughter cells identical to original
cytokinesis (plasm split)
mitosis two identical cells
karyotype-organization of chromosomes homologous pair
somatic-non sperm or egg (all 46 chrom)
germ cells produce gametes-have diploid meiosis
interphase-prophase-metaphase-anaphase-telophase-cytokinesis
centrioles form- 92 chrom in cell, sisters attached at centromere-nuclear membrane breaks, spindle fibers appear-spindle fibers grab sisters and line them in middle-spindle pull broken chromosomes toward pole of cell-new membrane forms, spindle fibers break-active separation chevage furrow.