Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering: Applications and Advancements
Biotechnology
Biotechnology encompasses techniques using biochemical changes from microorganism metabolic activity. It’s applied in agribusiness for environmentally friendly products, reducing reliance on chemical industries. Other applications include organic product production and processing, medicine, pharmacology, waste disposal, environmental sanitation, and mining.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering manipulates and transfers DNA between organisms, creating new lineages within a species. Applications include disease diagnosis and prevention, molecular medicine, bioarchaeology (determining anthropometric characteristics, nutrition, health, lifespan, and genetic relationships from ancient bones), anthropology (evolution studies), and forensic medicine.
Enzyme Replacement Therapy
This therapy introduces an active enzyme to replace a defective one. For example, the human glucocerebrosidase gene is cloned into a vector, introduced into mammalian cells to express the enzyme, then purified and injected. While clinical improvements are observed, it’s not universally effective. Mental retardation sees less relief due to the blood-brain barrier hindering enzyme delivery. Despite the high cost, it’s used for milder forms with better symptom improvement.
Transgenic Organisms
These organisms have modified hereditary material, either by introducing a foreign gene or deleting an existing one. A foreign gene is introduced via a vector, integrating into the host cell’s DNA. Modifying an egg cell results in all subsequent cells having recombined DNA.
Transgenic Plants
Genes are introduced into plants for economic benefits like herbicide resistance, pest resistance, and extended shelf life.
Transgenic Animals
DNA is injected into fertilized eggs before cell division, then reintroduced into the uterus. This creates animal models of human diseases (e.g., muscular dystrophy, cancer, neonatal hepatitis, chronic hypotension, hypertension, Alzheimer’s) for research and treatment development. Mice are commonly used due to their ease of breeding.
Stem Cells
Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated and can become any cell type through differentiation. They hold potential for treating diseases like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. Ethical concerns surrounding embryo use drive research into alternative stem cell sources.
Clonal Organisms
Clones have identical genetic material. Dolly the sheep (1997) was the first cloned mammal. A mammary gland cell nucleus was inserted into another sheep’s egg and implanted into a surrogate. Dolly experienced premature aging and arthritis. Human cloning faces challenges like the high number of eggs required (100-200 donors) and risks of malformations and premature aging.
The Human Genome Project (HGP)
This international project aimed to decipher the entire human genome sequence. Starting in 1986, its objectives included developing detailed chromosome maps, creating efficient sequencing techniques, and establishing data storage and analysis tools. A draft genome was available in 2000, coinciding with Celera Genomics’ publication of a genome sequence in Science and Nature.