Birth of the United States and the Bourbon Dynasty
Birth of the U.S.
Since the early 18th century, inhabitants of the thirteen British colonies in eastern North America criticized British policies. They protested constant taxes and lack of political representation. Enlightenment ideals fueled desires for freedom and independence. Protests and uprisings against colonial authorities increased, met with harsh responses from the British army. In 1773, a new British tax on tea, a commodity in high demand, sparked further outrage. That December, Bostonians disguised as Native Americans dumped tea into the harbor to prevent its shipment to Britain, an event known as the Boston Tea Party. Widespread protests followed, and the British army’s suppression, including closing Boston’s port, escalated colonial resistance, culminating in the Revolutionary War.
War of Independence
Colonial rebels formed an army under George Washington. This militia, lacking sufficient arms, sought aid from foreign powers like France and Spain. The war began in 1775. On July 4, 1776, representatives of the thirteen colonies, meeting in Philadelphia, approved the Declaration of Independence, declaring independence from Great Britain and recognizing fundamental human rights. After fierce battles, the British army was defeated at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781. Britain formally recognized American independence in 1783.
A New Nation
During the war, each colony drafted its own governing rules. After independence, unifying these states became essential. In 1787, fifty-five representatives from the thirteen states met in Philadelphia to draft the U.S. Constitution. Ratified on September 17, 1787, it established a federal republic, respecting the self-governance of individual states. This first modern written constitution, still in effect today, embodied Enlightenment principles and recognized fundamental human rights, abolishing privileges of the old regime.
North vs. South
The newly organized nation experienced rapid development in the northern states, focusing on industry, agriculture, and trade. Southern states concentrated on plantation agriculture (tobacco and cotton), relying on enslaved labor. These differences between the industrial North (Yankees) and the agrarian, slave-holding South (Confederates) led to the Civil War. The North’s victory marked the end of slavery.
The Bourbons
The Bourbon victory in Spain marked significant changes. Philip V established an absolute monarchy modeled after Louis XIV, creating a unified state by abolishing the charters and privileges of the Crown of Aragon. The defeated states were assimilated into Castile’s political and administrative structure through the Nueva Planta decrees. Valencia was integrated in 1707, Aragon in 1711, Mallorca in 1715, and Catalonia in 1716. These kingdoms were ruled directly from the court, leaving only the Basque Country and Navarre with some autonomy.
Bourbon Reign
Philip V (1701-1746) consolidated the centralized absolute monarchy and intervened militarily in Italy to secure thrones for his sons. Ferdinand VI (1746-1759) and Charles III (1759-1788) faced similar challenges, including threats from English colonies in America and maintaining Spain’s global power. Both pursued neutral foreign policies and focused on domestic economic development, rationalizing colonial strategies in America, which continued to provide valuable resources. They implemented reforms in government, economics, and culture to address Spain’s lag compared to other nations, drawing on technical and intellectual expertise.
International Conflicts and Domestic Unrest
Throughout the 18th century, Spain faced numerous international conflicts. Under Charles III, British interests in America were a constant concern. Family pacts between the French and Spanish Bourbons led to British apologies for attacking Spanish possessions after the Seven Years’ War. Charles III also supported the American Revolution, regaining territories seized by the British through the 1783 Treaty of Versailles. Charles IV’s reign (1788-1808) was marked by turmoil from the French Revolution and wars against France and England, hindering development. In 1766, under Charles III, a ban on long coats and wide-brimmed hats sparked the Esquilache Riots in Madrid, fueled by high commodity prices. The Jesuits were expelled from Spain, accused of instigating the riots.