Bourbon Absolutism and the French Revolution: Causes and End of the Old Regime
Bourbon Absolutism
The first Spanish Bourbons followed the example of their relatives and implemented the French model of absolute, centralized power. All power resided in the monarch, and the courts were rendered void. To govern, the king relied on a few advisors or secretaries appointed directly by the monarch, assembled in what became known as the council or cabinet of ministers. The Cortes disappeared, except for the Castilian one, and legislative work depended exclusively on institutions controlled by the monarch. The Councils remained, particularly the Council of Castile, but their function was purely advisory.
The Causes of the French Revolution
The French Revolution in 1789 was rooted in a deep social and economic crisis. Since 1760, crop failures had led to rising food prices and popular discontent. The beginning of the Revolution was triggered by a revolt of the privileged aristocracy. They refused to pay taxes and demanded that Louis XVI convene the Estates-General, the only body that could approve general fiscal reforms. The Estates-General opened in Versailles in May 1789, chaired by the King. Representatives of the clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate followed tradition, with each estate having the same number of deputies. Discussions were held separately, and each estate had one vote.
The Third Estate demanded double representation, joint deliberation, and voting per person, allowing for a majority. This issue was crucial: at stake was the idea of national sovereignty, that is, admitting that the members in general represented the entire nation, not just the will of the monarch and the nobility. Despite dual representation, the deputies of the Third Estate met on June 20 in a pavilion in Paris and pledged to form a National Assembly and draw up a constitution reflecting the will of the French people.
The End of the Old Regime
The people of Paris supported the representatives of the Third Estate, fearing that royal troops would arrest the deputies. On July 14, they stormed the Bastille fortress, took up arms, and prepared to defend the revolution. The revolutionary process also extended to the countryside in the form of an anti-seigneurial revolt, with the burning of manor houses and the destruction of documents. Popular radicalization led the National Assembly to decree the abolition of feudal privileges on August 4 and adopt the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, recognizing individual and collective freedoms, as well as equality before the law.
The Failure of the Constitutional Monarchy
The royal family’s opposition to the revolution was evident in their attempted flight from Paris to join the Austrian army, planning to invade France and restore absolutism. The discredited monarch was returned to the capital, demonstrating their rejection of the revolutionary process. In April 1792, the legislature declared war on Austria, and the Austrians advanced towards Paris. This situation created a climate of revolt among the sans-culottes, who on August 10, 1792, stormed the royal palace, imprisoned the monarch, and proclaimed the republic.