Bourgeois Revolutions: Rise of the Bourgeoisie and Napoleon’s Empire
The Rise of the Bourgeoisie Through Revolution
The bourgeois revolutions enabled the bourgeoisie to gain political power and a social status previously exclusive to the nobility under the Ancien Régime. These revolutions primarily occurred in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
American War of Independence (1775-1783)
Great Britain fought its thirteen colonies, located on the Atlantic coast of North America, in the American War of Independence.
Causes of the War
- Ideological Factors: The ideals of liberty and equality formed the basis for independence.
- Political Factors: The Seven Years’ War, won by Great Britain, led to increased taxes to pay war debts.
- Economic and Social Factors: A wealthy colonial bourgeoisie desired freedom of trade.
Consequences
The War of Independence was led by George Washington (1775), who formed a new army.
Key Stages
- 1st Stage: Initial successes for Great Britain.
- Declaration of Independence: July 4, 1776.
- 2nd Stage: The birth of the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Versailles.
- United States Constitution: 1787, establishing a Federal Republic. The U.S. became a symbol for other nations.
The French Revolution and its Impact
The French Revolution led to the crisis and fall of the Ancien Régime.
Political, Economic, and Social Changes
- Political Changes: Establishment of constitutional monarchy and republic, constitutions based on popular sovereignty, the rise of political parties, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.
- Economic Changes: Citizens were required to pay taxes, free trade was implemented, and private property was respected.
- Social Changes: Everyone was now equal before the law, and the bourgeoisie could participate in politics.
The Napoleonic Empire
In 1804, Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France. His political achievements included:
Domestic and Foreign Policy
- Domestic Policy: Consolidated changes made during the revolution. He established the Civil Code, protecting private property.
- Foreign Policy: Transformed France into an empire through victories over Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Although he never defeated Great Britain, despite the Continental Blockade, he spread revolutionary principles of liberty and equality.
Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and exiled to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821.
The National Assembly and Subsequent Governments
The Third Estate demanded a new voting system where representatives voted individually. When the King refused, the Third Estate formed the National Assembly, claiming to be the true representatives of the nation. Eventually, the King agreed.
Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
Led by moderate bourgeoisie:
- Constituent Assembly: Created a Constitution (limited monarchy, separation of powers, limited suffrage). Other measures included the abolishment of feudal privileges, equality in taxation, and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
- Legislative Assembly (1791): Divided into two parties:
- Girondins: Moderate, wealthy bourgeoisie who supported a constitutional monarchy and dominated the Legislative Assembly.
- Jacobins: Radical petite bourgeoisie who advocated for a republic and universal manhood suffrage.
Democratic Republic (1792-1794)
Led by radical bourgeoisie:
- National Convention: Led by the Girondins. Elected by universal manhood suffrage. The King and Queen were executed, and the republic was proclaimed.
- Jacobin Convention: The most radical phase, imposing a Terror dictatorship led by Robespierre, supported by the sans-culottes. Measures intended to:
- Contribute to the war against Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
- Enforce the Constitution.
- Implement the Law of Maximum.
Bourgeois Republic (1795-1804)
Led by moderate and conservative bourgeoisie:
- The Directory: A new constitution (bourgeois power, limited male suffrage, conservative government).
- Directory (5 members): Separation of powers, higher army influence.
- The Consulate (1799): General Napoleon Bonaparte established the Consulate, a new form of government with three consuls. In 1802, Napoleon became First Consul for life.
Reforms Under Napoleon
- Ended France’s political and economic instability.
- By 1804, the French Revolution had ended.
- Napoleon held absolute power.