British and American History: From the Stuarts to the World Wars

Posted on Jan 12, 2025 in Social Anthropology

The Stuart Dynasty and the Rise of the American Colonies

After Elizabeth I’s death, the Stuart Dynasty began. James I of England and VI of Scotland had to manage the Scottish Kirk and the confrontation between Highland and Lowland clans. He created the Calvinist Church, so he was Protestant, and the Catholics were discontented. He wrote the Basilikon Doron, where he wrote how to be a good Christian and a good monarch and how to behave properly. Also, he wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies, a defense of absolutism. He had to forge alliances with Protestants and Catholics. He had the support of the Church of England, but Protestants and Catholics were unhappy because there were many executions (Guy Fawkes). He created the King James Bible in order to maintain the faith of the population. He died due to a heart attack, and Charles I became king.

Charles I and the English Civil War

During the reign of Charles I, there was a constant war between Spain and France (Britain had an alliance with France thanks to the marriage to Henrietta Maria, Louis XIII’s sister). The population wanted a reform of the religion (the Laudian reforms). Charles I wanted to be close to Catholics and wanted to reform Anglicanism. Because of the Commons’ opposition, who were Protestants, there was a political rebellion and a lot of people migrated to the American colonies because of the persecution.

The 13 Colonies

The 13 Colonies were a group of British colonies on the East Coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the USA.

The 13 Colonies were:

  • The New England Colonies:
    • Province of New Hampshire
    • Province of Massachusetts Bay
    • Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
    • Connecticut Colony
  • Middle Colonies:
    • Province of New York, Crown Colony from 1686
    • Province of New Jersey, 1702
    • Province of Pennsylvania
    • Delaware Colony
  • Southern Colonies:
    • Province of Maryland
    • Colony and Dominion of Virginia
    • Province of Carolina
    • Province of Georgia

The Commonwealth and the Restoration

During that period, in Britain, the Civil War was taking place (the Scottish Puritans versus England and the Royalists versus the Parliamentarians). The armies were with the king, but finally, the Parliament won. Charles I was judged in a trial and was executed in 1649. He was the first king executed in Europe. The monarchy disappeared, and a republic was claimed.

This period was cited in Puritan John Winthrop’s ‘A Model of Christian Charity’ before his first group of Massachusetts Bay colonists embarked on the ship Arbella to settle Boston. Winthrop warned his fellow Puritans that their new community would be ‘as a city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us,’ meaning, if the Puritans failed to uphold their covenant with God, then their sins and errors would be exposed for all the world to see. He wanted to be seen by other people, people that could join them.

The Interregnum and the Glorious Revolution

The Interregnum is the British period that lasted from 1649 (Charles I’s execution) to 1660 (the arrival of Charles II and the Restoration). It was characterized by a parliamentary democracy, the Calvinist theocracy, and Cromwell’s dictatorship. After the execution of Charles I, England was under republican government because the monarchy had disappeared. In 1653, Cromwell became the Lord Protector, who was the only ruler. In 1660, the restoration of the monarchy took place with Charles II. There was a continuation of the Anglican faith, although the Puritans resented it. Also, there was a parliamentary monarchy, which implied that the monarch reigned, but the Parliament (House of Commons) was in charge of making laws.

The Rise of Political Parties

In Parliament, two political parties appeared:

  • Tories (Royalists): They supported the higher authority of the monarch, and they were Anglicans and Catholics, but they were conservative.
  • Whigs (Parliamentarians): They supported parliamentary rule, and they were Protestants and liberals.

The Glorious Revolution

When Charles II died in 1685 without a legitimate heir, his brother James II took the throne. James II was a converted Catholic, and the English Parliament wouldn’t allow a ‘popish’ monarch to rule over Protestant England. The problem was that Britain couldn’t decide between William of Orange and Mary II or James II, so the Glorious Revolution started in 1688, and the Restoration ended. After three years as king, Parliament and a group of Protestant nobles overthrew James II and awarded the crown to his Protestant daughter, Mary, and James II was deposed. Alongside her husband, William of Orange, Mary ruled until 1702. The Whigs supported the succession of William and Mary. Those who supported James II’s claim became known as Jacobites.

The Jacobite Rebellions

The Jacobite Rebellions took place because of a vindication in favor of James II and his successors. James II had Irish support, based on a religious motive (they wanted the prevalence of Catholicism), and he also had Scottish support based on a political motive because Scotland wanted to be independent.

The Hanoverian Dynasty

After William’s death in 1702, Mary’s sister, Anne, took the crown. By this time, the Stuart Dynasty ended, and the Hanover Dynasty started with George I. During the 17th to early 18th centuries, the Whig ideology was established. Parliament was the ruler; in other words, the King was replaced by the House of Commons. The Cabinet and the figure of the Prime Minister were created. In society, men were superior to women, and the middle classes rose.

The War of Independence and the American Revolution

In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Britain colonized a lot. We know that colonialism is the control of lands and people by foreign power and that it was originally intended for trade purposes. The British colonizers imposed their social, legal, and administrative systems, and they repressed native cultures.

The Unification of the British Isles

  • Wales: 1535
  • Scotland: 1707
  • Ireland: 1800

Also, they colonized lands in Asia, India, and North America (overseas colonies); they expanded a lot. In North America, they invaded Lower Canada (Quebec), Upper Canada (Ontario), Louisiana, the Cajuns, and the 13 Colonies.

The 13 Colonies and the Road to Independence

The 13 Colonies, which were settlements erected in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, were: (…). In America, the British Empire began to tighten control over its rather autonomous colonies. In 1763, in response to a revolt of Native Americans led by Pontiac, the King of Britain ordered the building of a boundary, known as the Proclamation Line. It was created to separate the British colonies from American Indian lands. Further, only licensed traders would be allowed to deal with Indians.

The War of Independence

The War of Independence was proclaimed in 1775 and lasted until 1783. The main cause was Britain’s attempt to tighten imperial control in the economic field by regulating American commerce and industry to suit British interests (by the policy of mercantilism). In addition, Americans objected to British taxation on consumer goods, particularly tea, that led to the Boston Tea Party and the beginning of the Revolution (the taxes had increased). Further, there was scarce representation of the colonies in the British Parliament. They wanted their own administrative autonomy and to have full control of trade in the colonies.

The Constitution of the United States

As a result of this war, the Constitution of the United States was created in 1787. This Constitution defined the rights and the duties of government and strengthened the union of the confederated states. The legislative power was given to Congress, represented by the Lower House (House of Representatives) and the Upper House (Senate); the President was in charge of the executive power, and, of course, the judicial power was given to the Supreme Court.

Causes and Consequences of the American Civil War

The Civil War erupted from a variety of tensions and disagreements about American life and politics. For nearly a century, the people and politicians of the Northern and Southern states had been clashing over the issues that finally led to war: economic interests, cultural values, the power of the federal government to control the states, and, most importantly, slavery in American society.

The Conflict Between North and South

This Civil War confronted the liberal North versus the conservative South. At the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, slavery not only remained legal in all 13 British American colonies, but it also continued to play a significant role in their economies and societies. However, a growing movement to abolish slavery had led many Northern states to enact abolitionist laws and abandon slavery (the Liberian Project).

With an economy based more on industry than agriculture, the North enjoyed a steady flow of European immigrants. On the other hand, with a way of life steeped in age-old traditions of white supremacy and a mainly agricultural economy that depended on cheap (slave) labor, the Southern states viewed slavery as essential.

Key Figures: John Brown and Abraham Lincoln

John Brown was a leading figure in the abolitionist movement. Unlike many anti-slavery activists, he wasn’t a pacifist and believed in aggressive action against slaveholders and any government officials who enabled them. On the other hand, President Abraham Lincoln has always been depicted as the great 16th President who set the slaves free. His Emancipation Proclamation proves his views on slavery mostly dealt with saving the Union, although he put a higher value on preserving the Union than on ending slavery.

The Emancipation Proclamation

The Emancipation Proclamation was a presidential proclamation issued by Abraham Lincoln in 1863. It changed the legal status under federal law of more than 3 million enslaved African Americans in the Confederate states from slave to free. As soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, the slave was permanently free. Ultimately, the Union victory brought the proclamation into effect in all of the former Confederacy. The remaining slaves were freed by state action or by the Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution, ratified in 1865.

The Assassination of Lincoln

The liberal North won the Civil War. On the eve of April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth, a famous actor and Confederate sympathizer, assassinated Abraham Lincoln while he was watching a play at Ford’s Theatre in Washington.

The British Response to the French Revolution

The French Revolution influenced the Industrial Revolution.

Stage 1 of the French Revolution

In the first stage of the Revolution, the population rose up against the government in 1789; that’s the reason why the National Assembly declared the Rights of Men and the Citizen that same year. Also, the first French Constitution was created in 1791: the feudal, the monarchical, and the church privileges were abolished. Power was granted to the people, the three estates. The motto of this revolution was *liberté, égalité, fraternité*. It was first said by Robespierre in a speech. Some political factions appeared: the Royalist Democrats and the National Party, who were Republicans. Among the Republicans, there were Girondins and Jacobins, who were confronted.

Stage 2: The Reign of Terror

The second stage of the Revolution is known as the Reign of Terror. Robespierre was the ruler of the Committee of Public Safety, and this period was characterized by the persecution of political opponents. These opponents were executed by the guillotine.

Stage 3: The Directory

If we mention the third stage of the Revolution, we have to know that the Directory was a five-member committee that governed France from 1795, when it replaced the Committee of Public Safety, until 1799. As the Directory became more and more corrupt, the military leaders of France grew in power. One particular general, Napoleon, had gained many victories on the battlefield. On November 9, 1799, he overthrew the Directory and established a new government called the ‘Consulate.’ He established himself as the First Consul and would later crown himself emperor.

Stage 4: The Napoleonic Empire

The fourth stage is characterized by the Napoleonic Empire. Napoleon wanted to expand his revolutionary principles, and he expanded over Europe and European colonies.

The British Response

And what was the British response? Britain supported the Revolution during 1789 to 1792. Supporting the Revolution was a strategy because it produced the weakness of the traditional enemy (France). Also, the Whigs wanted to support the Revolution, and many other philosophers (Payne) and poets (Wordsworth, Coleridge).

From 1793 to 1815, Britain changed its opinion, and the country started to oppose the Revolution. The governors were afraid of revolutionary expansion abroad, and also, they were scared of repression by Tories. Britain established international coalitions against Napoleon’s expansionism.

Key Battles Against Napoleon

In the Battle of Trafalgar, which was a sea battle fought on 1805 between the navies of France and Spain on one side, and Great Britain on the other, the British forces won. This allowed Britain to become the world’s largest sea power for 100 years. On the other hand, in the Battle of Austerlitz (1805), a French army under Napoleon’s command defeated a joint Russo-Austrian army. It signified the French rule over Europe.

The Peninsular War (1808-14) was a major conflict fought in the Iberian Peninsula, with Spain, Portugal, and the British forces (with the Duke of Wellington) fighting against the French.

In 1812, Napoleon tried to invade Russia, but he was defeated and had to be exiled to Elba. That meant the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy with Louis XVIII.

In 1815, Napoleon returned from exile, and the Battle of Waterloo took place: a French army under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by two of the armies of the Seventh Coalition. After that, the Quadruple Alliance was created. It was a treaty signed in Paris on 1815 by the great powers of the United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. It renewed the use of the Congress system, which advanced European international relations at the time. The powers promised aid to each other, which lasted until 1818.

The Influence of the American Independence on the French Revolution

When American colonists won independence from Great Britain in the Revolutionary War, the French, who participated in the war themselves, were both close allies and key participants. Several years after the revolt in America, French reformists faced political, social, and economic hardships that mirrored the colonists’ struggles.

Although the French and American people had different motives for revolting against their ruling governments, some similar causes led to both revolutions, including the following:

  • Economic struggles: Both the Americans and French dealt with a taxation system they found discriminating and unfair. Additionally, France’s involvement in the American Revolution, along with extravagant spending practices by King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette, left the country on the verge of bankruptcy.
  • Unequal rights: Like the American colonists, the French felt that specific rights were only granted to certain segments of society (the elite and aristocrats).

The National Assembly in France even used the American Declaration of Independence as a model when drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen in 1789. The French people saw that a revolt could be successful even against a major military power, and this gave them the motivation to rebel.

Causes and Consequences of the Industrial Revolution

The Agricultural Revolution, the increase in agricultural production in Britain between the mid-17th and late 19th centuries, was linked to such new agricultural practices as crop rotation, selective breeding, and a more productive use of arable land. During this period, the lands were first enclosed and divided with common agreement; there were no physical borders.

The increase in the food supply contributed to the rapid growth of the population in Britain. The mechanization and rationalization of agriculture were key factors in the Agricultural Revolution. New tools were invented, such as the steam engine, which began to power more innovative machines. It could power ships, cars, and even trains.

The Industrial Revolution

The Agricultural Revolution has been cited as a cause of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution refers to a time of great technological, economic, industrial, and social development in England in the late 18th century and throughout the 19th century. Several factors helped to initiate the Industrial Revolution: these factors included the development of machinery, the population increase, and the innovation of processes to make labor more efficient. More importantly, the Age of Enlightenment before the 19th century offered ideas that gave British people the ability to increase knowledge and improve society.

Citizens in rural villages migrated to the cities to work in the cotton factories to earn wages. Cities began to increase in population from the rural migrants.

Political Consequences of the Enclosure System

Enclosure, or the process that ended traditional rights on common land formerly held in the open field system and restricted the use of land to the owner, is one of the causes of the Agricultural Revolution and a key factor behind the labor migration from rural areas to gradually industrializing cities.

Consequences of the Enclosure System

Some of the consequences of the enclosure system are the following:

  • The working conditions changed; the land was used intensively, so production grew. Because of unemployment, a lot of people migrated to the city.
  • Machines were needed because of the mechanization of work and the development of mass industry. The use of machine power improved productivity, and man’s work started to be a complement (this derived in unemployment). Men had agricultural, textile, and mining works.
  • Pollution: The cities were covered with smoke.
  • A redistribution of wealth and social classes occurred: upper gentry, middle and lower gentry, and working classes.
  • There were more people than jobs, so the conditions were degraded: there were no restrictions on working hours, no limits on age, and no restrictions on job dismissals. In addition, women were displaced, and salaries were low.

Political Consequences

Some of the political consequences are the following:

  • People’s Charter 1838 and Chartist Movement 1838-48: It was a movement for social and political reform. The working class was betrayed because they couldn’t vote. Their interests were sacrificed by the misconduct of the government. In 1838, a committee, which then published the People’s Charter, had the following objectives: universal suffrage for all men over the age of 21, equal representation of voters, and secret voting.
  • The trade unions and societies were created, and the workers’ rights were vindicated.
  • Some Factory Act reforms occurred:
    • In 1838, the government passed a Factory Act to improve conditions for children working in factories. Young children were working very long hours in workplaces where conditions were terrible. The new rules were the following: no child workers under 9 years old, children of 9-13 years to work no more than 9 hours a day, children of 13-18 to work no more than 12 hours, and children weren’t to work at night.
    • The Factory Act of 1844 restricted 8-13-year-old children to working 6 and a half hours a day, and women could work 12 hours but not at night. Also, the Factory Act of 1847 restricted the working hours of women and young people (13-18) in textile mills to 10 hours per day.
    • The Factory Act of 1874 raised the minimum working age to 9, limited the working day for women and young people to 10 hours in the textile industry, to be between 6 am and 6 pm, and reduced the working week to 56 and a half hours.

Authors and Books of the Industrial Revolution

George Eliot with Middlemarch and Charles Dickens with Hard Times.

Causes and Consequences of World War I

World War I began in 1914 when a Serbian nationalist assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. There were two main powers: the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Turkey) and the Allied Powers (Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, United States). It ended with the defeat of the Central Powers.