British Society and Politics: 19th-20th Centuries
Oliver Twist and the Industrial Revolution
In the mid-1800s, the British economy, once heavily reliant on agriculture, underwent a significant transformation. Traditionally, villages operated with communal land belonging to the village members and a lord’s land, each divided for different purposes. The Industrial Revolution disrupted this system, fragmenting land into smaller, individually owned portions. This shift led to increased production, a larger food supply, and population growth. However, it also resulted in widespread unemployment, forcing many men and women to migrate to towns in search of work.
In 1776, American independence marked the loss of Britain’s colonies and disrupted the triangular trade route (Britain, West Africa, and the New World) that had fueled its economy.
The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 aimed to protect the poor, whose numbers were increasing. For those unable to support themselves, Parish Workhouses, often linked to religious institutions, offered accommodation and employment.
Society in the Victorian Era
Families began to express affection more openly, reflecting increased life expectancy. However, girls often faced pressure to conform to ideals of feminine beauty, and parents frequently arranged marriages for their children, sometimes against their wishes.
Individualism gained prominence, with families renovating their homes to include corridors, reflecting a greater emphasis on privacy. People also focused on hard work and wealth accumulation.
Monarchy and Politics
Queen Victoria reigned from 1837 to 1901. While the monarch still formally ‘chose’ ministers, they were also accountable to Parliament. A significant shift in political power occurred, with the House of Commons losing influence while the House of Lords gained it.
The Church of England faced criticism for neglecting the poor, leading to the rise of Methodism, particularly in rapidly growing cities where the Church struggled to maintain control.
Queen Victoria and the 19th Century
Methodism’s rise contributed to a decline in religious faith for some, though it was also credited with preventing a revolution in Britain. The nation’s prosperity was heavily reliant on the triangular trade.
Society continued to emphasize individualism. Urbanization accelerated, with new cities like Liverpool and Birmingham emerging. The monarchy’s power became increasingly limited.
The 19th century witnessed the profound effects of the Industrial Revolution. Queen Victoria adopted middle-class values, reflecting their growing economic influence. The rise of the middle class was directly linked to industrial advancements.
Victorian-era politics saw the birth of Trade Unions in 1824, aimed at improving working conditions. Cheap postage played a crucial role in their success.
The Chartist Movement advocated for six key parliamentary reforms:
- Universal male suffrage
- A secret ballot
- No property qualification for Members of Parliament
- Payment for Members of Parliament, enabling poorer men to serve
- Constituencies of equal size
- Annual elections for Parliament
The Labour Party emerged in 1900, championing workers’ rights. Population growth continued, leading to improvements in infrastructure, including pavements and sewage systems.
The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 remained significant, with Parish Workhouses providing support to the needy.
The Great Exhibition of 1851 showcased the innovations of the Industrial Revolution, including the railway, which facilitated migration from rural areas to cities.
Education
The Education Acts (1870-91) mandated school attendance for children. “Redbrick Universities” were established, contrasting with the older Oxbridge institutions. Leisure activities like beach visits and cycling became popular.
Margaret Thatcher: Prime Minister (1979-1990)
Margaret Thatcher, known as the “Iron Lady” for her strong personality, served as Prime Minister. In 1984, she survived an assassination attempt by the Irish Republican Army (IRA), which ultimately surrendered.
Thatcher’s policies, often described as “drastic surgery,” aimed to revitalize the British economy. Key aspects included:
- Privatization of the service sector (“white collar” jobs)
- Market liberalization, similar to Reagan’s policies. The “Big Bang” deregulated the financial market.
- Opposition to social engineering
- Opposition to a common currency (the Euro)
- Introduction of the Poll Tax in 1990, criticized as undemocratic due to its flat rate regardless of income.
Politicians who followed Thatcher and maintained her policies, regardless of party affiliation (Tory or Labour), are sometimes referred to as “Thatcher’s Children,” including figures like Gordon Brown, Tony Blair, and David Cameron.
Raised in a strict Methodist family, Thatcher emphasized Victorian values, including:
- Reducing the power of the state
- Lowering direct taxation
- Encouraging self-reliance (“You believe in what you are.”)
Despite an initial landslide victory, the British economy faced challenges (industrial unrest, unemployment, inflation, riots). Thatcher’s attempts to curb inflation through monetary control and spending cuts initially led to doubled inflation, increased unemployment, and factory closures. The decline of heavy industry resulted in a less unionized economy. The 1981 recession severely impacted inner cities, especially Liverpool. However, North Sea oil revenues helped the British economy recover, supporting Thatcher’s early policies.
The Women’s Reform Movement
Marriage was traditionally viewed as a property transaction, and divorce was difficult to obtain. Married women initially surrendered all property to their husbands, but this became illegal in 1882. Wife beating remained legal until 1891.
Voting and Local Elections
Middle-class women gained the right to vote in local elections in 1870. In 1897, suffragettes began demanding full voting rights, sometimes using violent methods. Women over 30 achieved suffrage in 1918, and in 1928, the voting age was equalized for men and women at 21.
Medicine
Women in medicine were often relegated to the role of nurses (“sisters”), facing barriers to becoming doctors or surgeons. Notable exceptions included:
- Mary Seacole, who employed non-traditional methods to treat soldiers injured in the Crimean War.
- Elizabeth Garrett, who earned an MD in 1861 and became the first female surgeon.
Wages
Women campaigned for equal and fair wages. Some female workers contracted a debilitating disease called “phossy jaw.”
Education
Higher education was generally discouraged for women. The first college for middle-class women was founded in 1837, but degrees were not initially awarded.
Contraception
Women sought advice on birth control and greater reproductive freedom. In 1878, Annie Besant opened a clinic providing information on contraception, but it was quickly shut down.
Hobbies
Women began to adopt previously unconventional behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, wearing shorter clothing, and using makeup. They also participated in outdoor sports like climbing and cycling, representing early steps toward greater personal freedom.
Julia Margaret Cameron, a photographer, worked with equipment and chemicals, challenging the notion that photography was solely a hobby and not a profession for women. The Royal Photographic Society recognized her work.