Building the Liberal State in Spain: Construction, Conflict, and Constitution
Building the Liberal State in Spain
Construction, Conflict, and Constitution
The Carlist Wars and the Rise of Liberalism
Following Ferdinand VII’s death in 1833, his daughter, Isabella II, became heir, with Queen Maria Cristina of Naples as regent. Carlos, Ferdinand’s brother, along with absolutists, refused to accept Isabella and declared war. The regent relied on the Liberals to defend the throne. Carlism represented not only a fight for Charles’s rights but also for the Old Regime.
Carlist Ideology:
Their motto was: God, Country, King, and Privileges. They adhered to traditional absolutism and exclusive Catholicism, opposing liberal ideals of equal rights. They defended the privileges of Navarre, the Basque Country, and Catalonia, including tax exemptions, freedom from military service, fiscal autonomy, and communal lands for the poor.
Carlist Supporters:
The Carlist movement drew support from the clergy, small landowners, laborers, and small artisans. It was neither a bourgeois nor an urban movement.
First Carlist War (1833-1839):
Charles V and his followers were suppressed in most regions except Catalonia, Galicia, the Basque Country, and Maestrazgo. Despite being a civil war, it garnered European attention. Absolutist powers supported Charles, while Liberals supported Isabella. General Zumalacarregui consolidated the Carlist army in the Basque Country and Navarre but died during the siege of Bilbao (1835). Lacking a strong replacement, Carlos María Isidro led expeditions to seek support, reaching Andalusia in 1836 and nearing Madrid in 1837, but negotiations with the ruling power failed. In 1839, General Maroto, recognizing Espartero’s superior Cristino forces, negotiated the Convention of Vergara: recognition of Queen Isabella, preservation of privileges, payment and positions for Carlist officers, and Carlos María’s exile. General Cabrera continued fighting in Maestrazgo until 1840.
Second Carlist War (1846-1849):
This war primarily occurred in Catalonia. Carlos María abdicated in favor of his son, Charles VI, in 1845. Charles VI sought to marry Isabella II, but she refused. Ramon Cabrera and Benito Tristani were defeated by Manuel Gutiérrez de la Concha in Barcelona.
Third Carlist War (1872-1876):
Followers of Charles VII rejected Amadeus of Savoy and the First Republic, controlling rural areas in Navarre and the Basque Country. Their attempt to conquer Bilbao in 1874 failed. Alfonso XII ended the war after the battles of Seo de Urgel (1875) and Estella (1876).
Consequences of the Carlist Wars:
- Increased military intervention in politics (leading to coups).
- Significant economic cost due to maintaining a permanent army.
- Loss of Basque and Navarrese charters.
Building the Liberal State:
Initial reforms were primarily administrative. In 1833, Javier de Burgos divided Spain into forty-nine provinces for more efficient governance, allowing the return of exiled liberals. In 1834, facing demands for political reform, Regent Maria Cristina appointed Martínez de la Rosa, who introduced the Royal Statute. This charter granted by the Crown promised governance with a Cortes divided into two chambers: the Estate of Peers (appointed grandees) and the Estate of Attorneys (elected with census suffrage). The Cortes could petition the monarch and approve taxes, while the monarch could convene or dissolve Parliament, legislate, and chair the Ministers. The Moderate and Progressive Parties emerged in 1834.
Dissatisfaction among Liberals and a dire economic situation led to unrest in 1835. Mendizábal, appointed prime minister, implemented economic reforms, notably the confiscation of church property to fund the war. In 1836, the Sergeants of La Granja mutiny forced the reinstatement of the 1812 constitution, but progressives opted for a new one.
Constitution of 1837:
This constitution solidified the liberal system and marked the end of the Old Regime. It incorporated the principle of national sovereignty but was more moderate than expected due to the influence of the Royal Expedition.
- Representation: Bicameral Cortes with Congress and Senate (the latter chosen by the king from a list presented to voters).
- Suffrage: Census-based.
- Executive Power: Held by the king and ministers accountable to the Cortes.
- Judiciary: Held by the state through judges, with a monopoly on applying laws.
- King: Involved in legislation, convening, and dissolving the Cortes.
- State Subdivisions: Centralized, with elected councils and town councils.
- Armed Forces: National Militia maintained in provinces.
- Church-State Relations: Freedom of religion, with state support for the Catholic Church.
- Education: Centralized and free.
End of the Regency:
From 1839, after the First Carlist War, Maria Cristina attempted to limit constitutional reforms, reducing the power of municipalities and the National Militia. This was opposed by Espartero, who controlled city councils through the Ministry of the Interior. Civil and military uprisings led to Maria Cristina’s abdication and exile in 1840. Espartero served as regent from 1840 to 1843, governing with progressive support and focusing on economic reforms, including free trade laws that antagonized protectionists. He gradually lost support, facing military conspiracies, culminating in General Narváez’s coup in 1843. Espartero was exiled.