Byzantine Art: History and Characteristics
Byzantine Art
Historical Context
After the final division of the Roman Empire, the western part succumbed to Germanic peoples just a century later, while the East survived for a thousand years.
The Byzantine Empire experienced its first great period of splendor under Justinian, who annexed large parts of the western Mediterranean and came close to restoring the ancient Roman Empire, of which it considered itself the legitimate heir.
However, this situation could not be maintained for long, and the Byzantine Empire fell back to its eastern territories. In the 7th century, Islam was born, a new political and religious force that would hereafter constitute its main threat, given its strength and capacity for expansion. Although the empire experienced further periods of growth, the loss of territory was constant until 1453, when the Ottoman Turks took Constantinople and liquidated their last stronghold.
Byzantine civilization was primarily a fusion of Roman imperial tradition and Christian thought, to which were added Greek cultural elements and certain Eastern practices. One of its defining characteristics was Caesaropapism, a term that refers to the close relationship of mutual support and reinforcement between the emperor and the church hierarchy. Two key facts illustrate the importance of this relationship between the imperial power, the Church, and religion:
- The Iconoclastic Controversy: In the year 726, Emperor Leo III, under the influence of Islam and Judaism, banned images in churches to prevent idolatry. The impact of this iconoclastic crisis on figurative art was very serious, as only new works were created, and many of the past were destroyed.
- The Great Schism of the East: Disagreements on a whole range of issues existed between the Eastern Church and the Western Roman Church. A mere incident between representatives of both was enough to produce their final break in 1054. This created a religious and cultural alienation that also affected art.
General Features of Byzantine Art
Byzantine art continued the tradition of Western Roman and early Christian art, at least until the dispute over images in the 8th and 9th centuries. Since then, its distinctive features were configured, which would influence Western medieval art and even more so Slavic Europe.
The influences on Byzantine civilization are specifically reflected in their art, which can be defined as mystic and symbolic due to Christian influence, luxurious and solemn due to Eastern influence, and propagandist due to Hellenistic and Roman influence.
Ultimately, it was an art directed more to the senses than to reason; it sought the admiration of the viewer with the richness of color and light effects.
Artists and Clients
The consideration of artists in Byzantine society did not improve; they were still considered mere craftsmen, but as such, they enjoyed some admiration and prestige.
As for clients, the main ones were the emperors and the powerful church, which explains the majestic character, luxury, and propaganda of the art.
Periods of Byzantine Art
The first difficulty for the periodization of Byzantine art lies in its beginning, as various dates may be considered as a starting point: the year 330, when Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople; 395 AD, when the eastern sector of the Empire finally split; or 476, after the fall of Rome to the Ostrogoths and the disappearance of the Western Roman Empire. The most common approach is to consider the last of these dates as the beginning.
Moreover, the traditional periodization of Byzantine art is generally divided into three golden ages: the first golden age between the 6th and 8th centuries, the second age between the 9th and 12th centuries, and the last in the 14th century.
Here, we will follow another periodization, that of the Russian school and the Center for Byzantine Studies of Bari:
- Paleobyzantine Period (5th-7th centuries)
- Iconoclastic Period (726-843)
- Post-Iconoclastic Period (843-1453)
Architecture
Paleobyzantine Architecture (5th-7th Centuries)
Byzantine architecture remained under the influence of Roman and early Christian art. Western historians consider the era of Justinian as the peak of early Christian art.
In correspondence with the role of religion in society, the most interesting Byzantine buildings were the temples, which presented the following characteristics:
- The most used plan was the octagon, to which the Greek cross was added.
- The main areas were covered with domes.
- Squinch was used for the transition to the dome.
- Conventional columns with worked capitals were used as supports.
- The interior was spacious, light, and richly decorated.
- The interior walls were decorated with marble.
Post-Iconoclastic Architecture (9th-15th Centuries)
The architecture definitively broke with the Western basilica trend and established what became the classic model of a Byzantine church, with the following characteristics:
- Greek cross plan with a narthex.
- Central space covered by a dome on a drum with high windows.
- Sometimes four other domes were added.
- The interior decoration did not experience variations in the materials used.
- The external appearance was more carefully designed.
From the 13th century, we can no longer talk about innovations in Byzantine architecture but only of different local developments.
The Figurative Arts
In the history of Byzantine art, the iconoclastic controversy of the 8th and 9th centuries was decisive for the figurative arts. Many works were destroyed, production was halted, and when the crisis was finally overcome, strict guidelines were set regarding themes, how they should be represented, and their location within the church.
The Mosaic
In Byzantine art, as in early Christian art, the main destination of mosaics was the covering of vaults and walls inside buildings, in lieu of painting.
The first stage of the post-iconoclastic period, the so-called Macedonian Renaissance, is the most important moment in the shaping of Byzantine iconography.
Some themes and significant types would persist throughout the Middle Ages in Byzantine art and would even extend to the West. These include the following:
- Christ Pantocrator: As almighty lord, seated with the Gospels in his left hand and his right hand extended in a gesture of blessing. His features followed the Syriac model, mature and with a beard.
- The Virgin: Represented in different ways, such as Kyriotissa, in majesty and seated on a throne; as Hodegetria, showing the way to salvation; as Theotokos, the Mother of God; and finally as Deesis, with Christ on the cross or on the heavenly throne.
The location of each element within the temple became established after the iconoclastic crisis. Christ Pantocrator and the Virgin were the two dominant figures and hence occupied prominent places: the Pantocrator in the dome and the Virgin in the dome of the apse.
As for the formal characteristics of Byzantine mosaics, resulting from the increased emphasis on the religious message over naturalistic representation, some features were maintained with little alteration:
- The drawing is very detailed.
- Colors are vivid and bright.
- The figures are represented in a frontal and static attitude.
- Both the different elements and the subject undergo simplification.
- As a result of this simplification, spatial references are ignored and tend to be replaced by gold backgrounds.
Sculpture and Painting
Sculpture was very limited; statues virtually disappeared, and relief was limited to the architectural decoration of capitals and the work of ivory or silver reliquaries.
Something similar happened with mural painting. Mosaics and wall paintings sometimes appear together, and in such cases, the former often occupied the main spaces and the latter the rest. However, from the 14th century, wall paintings spread and were not confined only to secondary spaces.
More important was the illustration of religious books, especially the so-called icons. The Byzantine population yielded to these images a cult similar to that of relics in the West.
From a formal point of view, sculpture and Byzantine painting share the characteristics identified for mosaics:
- Figures are frontal and static.
- Ignorance of space.
- Simplification of the theme.
- In the case of painting, accurate drawing, bright colors, and often gilded backgrounds.