Byzantine Art: History, Characteristics, and Periods
Byzantine Art
Historical Context
After the final division of the Roman Empire, the western part succumbed to the Germanic peoples’ push just a century later, while the East survived a thousand years.
The Byzantine Empire experienced its first great period of splendor with Justinian, who annexed large parts of the western Mediterranean and came close to restoring the ancient Roman Empire, of which he was considered the legitimate heir.
However, this situation could not be maintained for long, and the Byzantine Empire fell back to its eastern territories. Within its seventh-century limits, Islam was born, a new political and religious force that would constitute its main threat, posing a challenge to its strength and capacity for expansion. Although the empire experienced further periods of growth, the loss of territory was constant until 1453, when the Ottoman Turks took Constantinople, liquidating their last stronghold.
Byzantine civilization was primarily a fusion of Roman imperial tradition and Christian thought, to which Greek cultural elements and certain Eastern practices were added. One of its defining characteristics was Caesaropapism, a term that refers to the close relationship of mutual support and reinforcement between the emperor and the church hierarchy. Two key facts illustrate the importance of this relationship between imperial power, Church, and Religion:
The Iconoclastic Controversy: In 726, Emperor Leo III, influenced by Islam and Judaism, banned images in churches to prevent idolatry. The impact of this crisis on figurative art was severe; few new works were created, and many from the past were destroyed.
The Great Schism: Disagreements on a range of issues arose between the Eastern Church and Western Roman Church. A significant incident between representatives of both churches led to their final break in 1054. This created a religious and cultural alienation that also affected art.
General Features of Byzantine Art
Byzantine art initially continued Western Roman and early Christian art traditions, at least until the Iconoclastic Controversy of the eighth and ninth centuries. After that, its distinctive features were established, influencing Western medieval art and, even more so, Slavic Europe.
The influences on Byzantine civilization were specifically reflected in its art, which can be defined as mystical and symbolic (due to Christian influence), luxurious and solemn (influenced by the East), and propagandistic (reflecting Hellenistic and Roman influence).
Ultimately, it was an art directed more to the senses than to reason, captivating the viewer with the richness of color and light effects.
Artists and Patrons
The social status of artists in Byzantine society did not improve significantly; they were still considered mere craftsmen. However, as such, they enjoyed some admiration and prestige.
The main patrons were the emperors and the powerful church, which explains the majestic character, luxury, and propagandistic nature of the art.
Periods of Byzantine Art
The first difficulty in periodizing Byzantine art lies in determining its starting point. Various dates can be considered: 330, when Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople; 395, when the eastern sector of the Empire finally split; or 476, after the fall of Rome to the Ostrogoths and the disappearance of the Western Roman Empire. We will consider the last of these dates as the beginning.
Moreover, the traditional periodization of Byzantine art is generally divided into three golden ages: the first between the 6th and 8th centuries, the second between the 9th and 12th, and the last in the 14th century.
We will follow another periodization, that of the Russian school and the Center for Byzantine Studies of Bari:
- Paleobyzantine Period (5th-7th centuries)
- Iconoclastic Period (726-843)
- Post-Iconoclastic Period (843-1453)
ARCHITECTURE
Paleobyzantine Architecture (5th-7th Centuries)
Byzantine architecture remained under the influence of Roman and early Christian art. Western historians consider the era of Justinian as the peak of early Christian art.
In correspondence with the role of religion in society, the most interesting Byzantine buildings were the churches, exhibiting the following characteristics:
- The most common plan was octagonal, to which a Greek cross was sometimes added.
- Main areas were covered with domes.
- The transition to the dome was achieved using pendentives.
- Conventional columns with decorated capitals were used for support.
- The interior was spacious, light, and richly decorated.
- Interior walls were adorned with marble.
Post-Iconoclastic Architecture (9th-15th Centuries)
Architecture definitively broke with the basilica trend and established the Greek cross plan as the classic model for Byzantine churches, with the following characteristics:
- Greek cross plan with a narthex.
- Central space covered by a dome on a drum with high windows.
- Sometimes, four additional domes were added.
- The interior decoration did not experience significant changes in materials.
- The external appearance received more attention.
From the 13th century onward, there were no major innovations in Byzantine architecture, only different local developments.
Figurative Arts
The Iconoclastic Controversy of the eighth and ninth centuries was decisive for Byzantine figurative arts. Many works were destroyed, production ceased, and when the crisis was finally overcome, strict rules were established regarding subject matter, representation, and placement within the church.
Mosaic
In Byzantine art, as in early Christian art, the primary purpose of mosaics was to cover vaults and walls inside buildings, replacing painting.
The first stage of the Post-Iconoclastic period, the so-called Macedonian Renaissance, is the most important moment in the shaping of Byzantine iconography.
Some significant themes and types persisted throughout the Middle Ages in Byzantine art and even spread to the West. These include:
- Christ Pantocrator: Depicted as the almighty lord, seated with the Gospels in his left hand and his right hand extended in a gesture of blessing. His features followed a Syriac model, mature and with a beard.
- The Virgin: Represented in various ways: as Kyriotisa (in majesty, seated on a throne), as Hodegetria (showing the way to salvation), as Theotokos (the mother of God), and as Deesis (with Christ on the cross or on the heavenly throne).
The placement of each element within the church became established after the Iconoclastic crisis. Christ Pantocrator and the Virgin were the two dominant figures, occupying prominent places: the Pantocrator in the dome and the Virgin in the apse’s dome.
The formal characteristics of Byzantine mosaics resulted from the increased emphasis on the religious message over naturalistic representation. Some features were maintained with little alteration:
- The drawing is very detailed.
- Vivid and bright colors predominate.
- Figures are represented in frontal and static poses.
- Both individual elements and the overall subject matter are simplified.
- Spatial references are ignored, often replaced by gold backgrounds.
Sculpture and Painting
Sculpture was very limited; statues virtually disappeared, and relief was restricted to architectural decoration of capitals and the creation of ivory or silver reliquaries.
A similar situation occurred with mural painting. Mosaics and wall paintings sometimes appeared together; in such cases, mosaics often occupied the main spaces, and paintings the rest. However, from the 14th century, wall paintings spread and were no longer confined to secondary spaces.
More important was the illustration of religious books, especially icons. The Byzantine population venerated these images similarly to the cult of relics in the West.
From a formal point of view, Byzantine sculpture and painting share the characteristics identified for mosaics:
- Frontal and static figures.
- Ignorance of space.
- Thematic simplification.
- In the case of painting: accurate drawing, bright colors, and often gilded backgrounds.