Byzantine & Carolingian Empires: History & Culture
The Byzantine Empire: Legacy of Rome
The achievements made by Rome during the Republic and the Empire contributed to the formation of a great empire around the Mediterranean. It survived invasions by Germanic peoples until 395 AD. Then:
- The Western Roman Empire disappeared in 476 when Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus.
- The Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, survived the Germanic invasions and lasted until 1453. The name comes from Byzantium, a city rebuilt by Emperor Constantine in 330. Constantine made it the capital of the empire and renamed it “New Rome.”
Barbarian tribes like the Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths threatened the Empire. By the early 6th century, the Byzantine Empire consisted of the Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. During the reign of Justinian, the empire reached its maximum splendor. He conquered several territories in the West, including North Africa, Sicily, Italy, and southeastern Hispania.
Byzantine Decline and Challenges
From the mid-11th century, the Byzantine Empire entered a deep crisis. They faced pressure from:
- Normans in the West.
- Christian Crusaders in the East.
Byzantine Government and Society
From the 7th century, the Byzantine Emperor took the Greek title of Basileus and concentrated all power as a political leader. He ran the administration and government. The central administration had an organized bureaucracy that included various officials. A powerful army and navy played an important role in the survival of the empire.
Agriculture was the main economic activity, organized into large estates owned by the nobility or monasteries. Handicrafts focused on luxury items such as silk, tapestries, silverware, ivory, and enamels. Trade was favored by the strategic location of the empire and its capital, Constantinople. The main trade products were silk and spices from the Orient.
Society was organized into three groups:
- Highest: Aristocracy.
- Middle: Monks and state officials.
- Lowest: Servants and slaves.
The Eastern Schism
The emperor intervened in church matters, appointing the Patriarch of Constantinople. Rivalry between the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope of Rome for supremacy over Christianity ended in 1054 with the separation between the Eastern and Western churches, known as the Eastern Schism.
Byzantine Art and Architecture
Byzantine art and architecture reflected Greek and Roman influence. They used inexpensive materials such as tiles. Key elements included columns, semicircular arches, and flat or domed roofs, especially domes on pendentives (curved triangles). The main building type was the church, utilizing various floor plans. Mosaics were used to decorate the walls and interiors of churches. Well-known examples depict Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora with their respective retinues. Icons, religious-themed paintings, were usually painted on wood, often using gold.
The Carolingian Empire
The Carolingian form of government was a monarchy, where kings concentrated military and political power. The economy relied on agriculture. Society was divided between the secular and ecclesiastical aristocracy, who were the owners of large estates (latifundia).
Charlemagne’s Reign
Charlemagne was the main Carolingian ruler. He sought to restore the unity of the Western Roman Empire. The government of the empire lay with the emperor, who concentrated military and political power and assumed the role of defender of Christianity, intervening in church matters.
Carolingian Economy and Society
Agricultural activities were predominant. The basis of the diet was lean meat and cereals, supplemented by limited herding, hunting, and fruits provided by forests. The major land properties were held by secular and ecclesiastical lords. The rest of the free people were mostly peasants. Serfs occupied the lowest social position.
Carolingian Culture
Latin was used as the administrative language, and a program to restore education was implemented. Among its most important centers was the Palatine School of Aachen.