Carlist Wars: A History of Opposition to Liberalism in Spain
Opposition to the Liberal Regime: The Carlist Wars and the Foral Question
The First Carlist War (1833-1839)
The liberal government established under Maria Cristina faced strong opposition from traditionalist and anti-liberal Carlists, who rallied around Infante Don Carlos María Isidro (brother of Ferdinand VII). The Carlists rejected liberalism, which they believed went against Spanish values. They also opposed the new industrial model, feeling that machines alienated workers from their labor. The lower clergy and a portion of the mid-level clergy (who had lost their tithes and first fruits) supported the Carlists, as did the lower nobility, who aimed to regain their hereditary privileges. Under the banner of “God, Homeland, and King” (and the promise of restored privileges), the Carlists launched a series of military uprisings, initiating the first of three Carlist Wars.
The war can be divided into three stages:
- Initial Stage (1833-1835): Don Carlos focused on securing a capital city to demonstrate the existence of a state that could garner international support. Initially lacking a regular army, the Carlists organized guerilla forces with popular support, particularly in the north. Prussia, Austria, and Russia pledged support to Don Carlos, contingent on his establishing a capital. Don Carlos dispatched his most brilliant general, Zumalacárregui, to capture Bilbao. This proved an impossible task; the Carlist army (around 25,000 men) was defeated, and Zumalacárregui was killed, depriving the Carlists of a respected leader. Meanwhile, General Cabrera consolidated Carlist forces in Aragon and Catalonia.
- Expeditions (1835-1837): The Carlists established their capital at Morella. General Gómez led an expedition through Spain seeking supplies and financial support. The Liberals, with international backing from Britain, France, and Portugal, successfully defended Bilbao, culminating in Espartero’s victory at Luchana (1836). Don Carlos launched an expedition towards Madrid, reaching Guadalajara, where he awaited reinforcements from Gómez. This delay allowed the Liberals to organize and defeat the Carlists, forcing them to retreat north.
- Final Stage (1837-1839): Liberal victory led to division among the Carlists. General Maroto, favoring negotiation, signed the Convention of Vergara (1839) with the liberal general Espartero. The agreement promised to maintain some privileges in the Basque provinces and Navarre. However, hardline general Cabrera, supported by a radical peasant base and loyal to Don Carlos, opposed the agreement and continued the fight, ultimately being defeated with the capture of Morella (1840).
The Second and Third Carlist Wars
In 1846, a second Carlist War erupted with uprisings in Catalonia, but it quickly ended in defeat for the Carlists in 1849. This war highlighted the continued opposition to liberalism in the northwest and the Basque Country. A third Carlist War began in 1873 in Vizcaya during the reign of Amadeo I, spreading to Navarre and Catalonia. Hoping to place Charles VII on the throne after the abdication of Isabella II, the Carlists were again defeated in 1875, though they remained a source of instability.
The Foral Question
The Foral Question reached its peak after the Convention of Vergara (1839), which vaguely promised to maintain privileges in Vizcaya and Navarre. However, in 1841, Navarre lost its customs, tax privileges, exemptions, military autonomy, and self-government. In return, they received an annual payment from the Treasury. Álava and Vizcaya also lost their governing boards and customs privileges. The pass Foral allowed for the continued existence of traditional law courts and municipal institutions, but their authority was superseded by the central government. Basques were exempt from conscription, and the Economic Agreement of 1846 established an advantageous annual contribution to the state.