Catalan Language: History, Influences, and Troubadour Poetry
Linguistic Diversity: The Catalan Language
Catalan belongs to the Romance language family, derived from Vulgar Latin. Several factors contributed to the emergence of various Romance languages from spoken Latin. Currently, nine Romance languages are spoken: Galician-Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, Occitan, French, Sardinian, Italian, Romansh, and Romanian.
1. Pre-Roman Influence: Catalan retains elements from languages that predate Roman influence.
2. Romanization: This process implemented Roman culture, laws, customs, and language across the Roman Empire. In 218 BC, the Romans landed in Empúries, and by 476 AD, the Western Roman Empire had fallen. Latin gradually replaced the Iberian language due to its prestige and advantages in trade and social standing, eventually becoming the sole language of the Iberian Peninsula. In 197 BC, Roman Hispania was divided into two major regions. Vulgar Latin provided the foundation for basic Catalan words like articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, and core vocabulary. While Vulgar Latin forms the basis of Catalan, literary Latin also contributed significantly to its lexicon, primarily through the church and legal documents. Words derived from Latin are called literary roots and have undergone phonetic evolution with minimal adaptation to Roman pronunciation.
3. Superstrates: Germanic and Arabic Influences
The Germanic Influence: As the Roman Empire weakened, Germanic peoples began to take control. The Visigoths occupied Roman territories, establishing themselves in the northern Iberian Peninsula and southern Gaul (Occitania). Their invasion did not halt Romanization; instead, they assimilated into the superior Latin culture. Initially, the Visigoths established their capital in Barcelona, but after being expelled from Gaul by the Franks, they moved it to Toledo. Of all the Germanic peoples in the Iberian Peninsula, only the Visigoths and Franks left significant linguistic traces.
The Arabic Influence: In 711 AD, the Arabs arrived in the Iberian Peninsula, expanding rapidly but not achieving complete dominance. Their influence varied regionally due to differences in duration and intensity. In Old Catalonia (between the Pyrenees and the Llobregat River), Arab rule was short-lived, while in New Catalonia, Valencia, and the Balearic Islands, it was longer and more impactful. The Arabs advanced into Catalonia until the Battle of Poitiers (732 AD), where the Franks halted their expansion. This marked the beginning of the reconquest of Arab-held territories. Roussillon was conquered in 759 AD, followed by Girona in 785 AD. During the 8th century, the Catalan counties emerged under Frankish rule. The Carolingian period, beginning in the 9th century under Charlemagne, brought significant reforms, including a renewed focus on Latin. This era marks the start of Catalan history with its own language and administration. A notable feature of Catalan, distinguishing it from Spanish and Portuguese, is the absence of the Arabic article ‘-al’ in many words.
4. Adstrates: Linguistic Exchanges
Adstrates refer to linguistic influences between languages in close contact. Catalan has been influenced by Spanish, Occitan, and other languages.
Gallicisms and Other Language Exchanges: French contributed to the Catalan lexicon from the 12th and 13th centuries, and especially during the prestigious 18th century (e.g., standard, sofa, driver, croquette, kiosk).
Italianisms: Italian influence came with the Catalan crown’s Mediterranean expansion (13th-15th centuries) and the cultural impact of Italian humanism and the Renaissance (15th-16th centuries), particularly in music and the arts (e.g., sonnet, piano score, soprano).
Anglicisms: English influence began in the 18th century in science, technology, sports, etc. (e.g., basketball, iceberg, camping, sandwich). English rule in Minorca during the 18th century also left its mark (e.g., xoquins from “shock”).
Troubadour Poetry
Troubadour poetry, written in Occitan during the 12th and 13th centuries, was performed by poets in the courts of feudal nobility. Both men (troubadours) and women (trobairitz) composed and sang these poems, often about courtly love outside of marriage. The poetry’s success led poets in other regions, like northern Italy and Catalonia, to adopt the Occitan language. Around 2,500 poems survive, some by known poets, others anonymous. “Songbooks” compiled during the 13th-15th centuries preserved these works. Common themes included a knight’s love for a married woman (midons), whose husband was called “gilós,” and the exploration of this forbidden relationship. The poet might enlist a squire’s help, while the gilós used informers (lausengiers). Jesters signaled the meaning of the poems to the lady without the husband’s knowledge. The poetry employed rich techniques and diverse styles:
- Trobar ric: Focused on elaborate form and perfection.
- Trobar clus: Played with meaning and concepts.
- Trobar leu: Imitated popular forms for a wider audience.
Content: The main themes were love, courtly love, and praise, often accompanied by music. Sirventes addressed moral rebukes, controversies, attacks, and religious, political, and literary ideologies. There were four types: moral, ethical, and religious sirventes; political sirventes; historical sirventes; and literary sirventes. The planh was a funeral lament, usually for a patron lord. The alba described lovers parting at dawn. The pastorela depicted a knight or troubadour encountering a shepherdess, their dialogue, and the outcome.
Form: The ballad and dance were songs for chorus and solo dances, characterized by refrains sung by the choir. Other forms included the estampida and the sirventes.
Troubadour, Poet, Minstrel
Troubadour: A poet-composer of the Middle Ages, typically singing in Occitan, especially the dialect of Toulouse. They traveled extensively, spreading news and culture.
Minstrel: Of humble origin, they were traveling entertainers who performed various acts, including reciting troubadour verses, often in village squares and castles.
Early Catalan Writings
The earliest known Catalan texts are fragments of a Catalan version of the “Forum Iudicum” and the “Homilies d’Organyà,” both from the 12th century.