Catalan Literature of the 50s and 60s: A Renewal

Posted on Sep 22, 2024 in Latin

Catalan Literature: Post-War Renaissance (1950s-1960s)

Resurgence in the 50s and 60s

Franco’s Dictatorship and Cultural Resistance

In the late 1940s and especially the 1950s, Franco’s dictatorship in Spain stabilized. Actions like joining UNESCO in 1952, signing the Concordat with the Vatican in 1953, and becoming part of the UN in 1955 signaled the regime’s longevity. This stability fostered cultural activity, both clandestine and overt. Underground networks of intellectuals met in forums and published magazines, representing diverse generations and ideologies, including conservative elements supported by the Church. Cultural revival efforts included discussion groups and journals like Ariel (1946-1948) and Dau al Set (1948-1951), united in their opposition to the dictatorship.

This resistance found traction in Valencia with intellectuals like Joan Fuster, Manuel Sanchis Guarner, and Vicent Andrés Estellés, and in the Balearic Islands with figures like Francesc de Borja Moll, Guillem Colom, and Miquel Dolç. Initiatives like the Diccionari català-valencià-balear and the establishment of Òmnium Cultural in 1961, supported by the Felix Millet Foundation, furthered the cause. Òmnium Cultural focused on projects like:

  1. Creating a Catalan language education network.
  2. Subsidizing the Institut d’Estudis Catalans.
  3. Promoting literary prizes.
  4. Establishing the Premi d’Honor de les Lletres Catalanes (Catalan Literature Honor Award).

Literary Awards and Publishing

The 1950s saw the emergence of literary awards as a strategy to incentivize creativity and renew Catalan literature. The Nit de Santa Llúcia awards for novels and poetry were established in 1951, followed by the Premi Víctor Català for narrative in 1953 and the Premi Sant Jordi for novels in 1960. Despite these initiatives, publishing remained challenging. Editorial Barcino played a crucial role in this period, providing opportunities for new authors like Josep Maria Espinàs and Estellés. Student protest movements began to emerge in universities, influenced by worker and intellectual activism.

Poetry of the 50s and 60s: Aesthetic Renewal

The 1950s and, particularly, the 1960s witnessed a significant aesthetic shift in Catalan literature. Poets who had published before the war, now marked by the experience of conflict and exile, saw their work consolidated and disseminated. The 1960s ushered in a new era known as historical realism, characterized by a focus on social realities and a desire for social critique. This movement, driven by a commitment to individual and social liberation, resonated with both established and emerging poets. Their poetry centered on social themes.

Noucentisme: Bourgeois Influence and Cultural Standardization

Rise of Noucentisme

Noucentisme emerged during a period of bourgeois cultural ascendancy, with the bourgeoisie willing to collaborate with intellectuals. The term “Noucentisme” was coined by Eugeni d’Ors and popularized through his writings. It signified a break from the past (“old”) and embraced the new century (“new”). The movement’s strength lay in its ability to unite intellectuals and influence the economic, political, and cultural landscape.

Characteristics of Noucentisme

Noucentisme differed from Modernisme in its alignment with political power. However, both movements shared a desire for modernization and cultural standardization. Noucentisme emphasized:

  1. Exaltation of the Present: Celebrating technological progress and economic prosperity.
  2. Reinterpreting the Past: Identifying with Greco-Roman classicism, emphasizing order, harmony, reason, and measure. This was linked to a Mediterranean ideal, celebrating light and an idyllic view of nature.
  3. Rejection of the 19th Century: Disavowing the perceived chaos of the previous century.
  4. Imperialism: Seeking political power within the Spanish state.
  5. Artifice: Emphasizing artistic mastery and control over form.
  6. Civility: Aiming to resolve the conflict between urban and rural life through dialogue. This was connected to the concept of an ideal city blending classical and modern elements.

Noucentisme prioritized craftsmanship and linguistic mastery. Its style favored technique and reason over spontaneity. Poetry and essays were the most successful genres. Unlike their predecessors, Noucentist writers were driven by cultural aspirations rather than solely financial gain.

Avant-Garde Movements (1918-1945)

Rebellion and Experimentation

The period between the two World Wars saw a surge in avant-garde movements characterized by rebellion against traditional forms and cultural norms. These movements often expressed their ideas through manifestos. Key movements included:

  • Cubism: (Guillaume Apollinaire)
  • Futurism: (Filippo Tommaso Marinetti)
  • Dadaism: (Tristan Tzara)
  • Surrealism: (André Breton)

Two Phases of the Avant-Garde

The avant-garde in Catalonia can be divided into two phases:

  1. 1915-1924: Marked by the publication of the first calligram in 1915 and the death of Joan Salvat-Papasseit in 1924. This period saw the coexistence of avant-garde, Noucentisme, and remnants of Modernisme. Avant-garde and Modernisme converged in their rejection of bourgeois society, valuing youth, modernity, and risk-taking in artistic forms. Gabriel Alomar engaged with the avant-garde, while Noucentisme remained largely unaffected due to the minority status of avant-garde artists. This phase coincided with the decline of Noucentisme, marked by the death of Enric Prat de la Riba in 1917, Eugeni d’Ors’s departure in 1920, and the weakening of the bourgeois system. Futurism and Cubism were the most influential avant-garde movements.
  2. 1925-1936: Dadaism and Surrealism became dominant. This phase was heralded by the Yellow Manifesto in 1928, signed by Salvador Dalí, Sebastià Gasch, Lluís Montanyà, and J.V. Foix. Josep Vicenç Foix was a key representative of this period.

Joan Salvat-Papasseit (1894-1924): A Futurist Voice

Joan Salvat-Papasseit was a significant figure in the early avant-garde. His work explored themes of sailors, love, and enthusiasm. He collaborated with various journals and embraced anarchist ideology. His first collection of poems, Poemes de l’aire, was published in 1918. He married in 1918 and moved to Sitges. Despite battling illness, his literary output increased. His later work reflects a duality: a black bohemianism rooted in political struggle and an aesthetic aligned with Futurism.

Characteristics of Salvat-Papasseit’s Avant-Garde Poetry:

  • Removal of punctuation
  • Breakdown of verse structure
  • Use of spaces and typographical freedom
  • Incorporation of arithmetic signs and floating words

Salvat-Papasseit’s poetry combined humanistic realism with vital optimism and enthusiasm. He rarely addressed the theme of death.

Salvador Espriu (1913-1985): Language, Space, and Identity

Early Works and Recurring Themes

Salvador Espriu began his literary career with prose, demonstrating a deep concern for language. His work is characterized by a focus on specific spaces and personalities. These spaces include:

  • Sinera (a fictionalized Barcelona)
  • Lavínia (Barcelona)
  • Konilòsia (representing Spain)
  • Sepharad (the name given by exiled Jews to the Iberian Peninsula)

Espriu’s work draws on diverse cultural traditions, including ancient Egypt, the Bible, Jewish tradition, and Greek mythology. Images of dryness and desolation recur frequently. Grotesque figures and domestic myths populate his narratives, blending contemporary politics and daily life with classical mythology. Death is a central theme, often explored through symbolism.

Three Stages of Espriu’s Literary Development

Espriu’s literary journey can be divided into three stages:

  1. Pre-War Period: Focused on prose, experimenting with narrative models, interior monologues, and psychological novels. Key works include Doctor Rip (1931), Laia (1932), and Ariadna al laberint grotesc (1935).
  2. Post-War Period: Marked by two poetry collections, Cementiri de Sinera (1946) and Les cançons d’Ariadna (1949). Primera història d’Esther (1948) is a significant work, blending biblical and mystical elements in a tribute to the Catalan language.
  3. Later Period: La pell de brau (1960) reflects on freedom, diversity, and tolerance in the Iberian Peninsula.

Vicent Andrés Estellés (1924-1993): Chronicler of Valencian Life

Early Life and Influences

Vicent Andrés Estellés began his literary journey with theater and journalism in Madrid. He served in the military in Navarra and began writing poetry during this time. In 1948, he started working for the newspaper Las Provincias. The death of his daughter became a recurring theme in his work. In 1984, he received the Premi d’Honor de les Lletres Catalanes.

Sociocultural Context

Estellés’s poetry emerged in the challenging postwar period for Valencian culture. Catalan literature was largely confined to specific events like the Falles, the Jocs Florals, and satirical publications. The 1950s saw a cautious revival of Valencian grammar. The following decade witnessed a struggle against the fascist right’s attempts to suppress Valencian intellectual and political progress. After the 1978 elections, Estellés helped establish the Unió Valenciana (Valencian Union).

Estellés’s Literary Contributions

Estellés’s work spans theater, narrative, autobiographical prose, journalism, and poetry. He wrote extensively, but much of his work remained unpublished until the 1970s. His early poems include “Ciutat a cau d’orella,” “Nit,” “Absenta,” “L’amant de la vida,” and “Lletres de canvi.” His poetic breakthrough came with Llibre de meravelles (1971), a chronicle of postwar Valencia and the lives of the defeated, and Recomane les fosques (1972).

Estellés’s Poetic Style

Estellés’s work is diverse and multifaceted, reflecting his pluralistic roots and deep connection to his homeland. His poetry serves as an inventory of a specific historical period, documenting the lives of ordinary people and the realities of his country.

Metrics: Estellés employed a wide range of metrical forms, including short and long verses, decasyllables with caesura at the fourth syllable, Italian hendecasyllables, hexasyllables, alexandrines, and sonnets. He also experimented with free verse.

Themes: His poems delve into everyday realities, often focusing on daily life during the war, the people of Valencia, and the struggles of the lower social classes. He explored themes of collectivity and individuality, poverty, hunger, love, freedom, and patriotism.

Language and Style: Estellés created a new poetic language, drawing on three main sources: the highbrow literary tradition, contemporary Catalan literature, and the spoken language of the streets. His poetry often carries a subversive tone, influenced by his journalistic background.

Literary Resources: Estellés employed colloquial words and expressions to create a sense of surprise and disrupt the solemn tone. He used conjunctions like “or” to link words and images, and he frequently used superlative adjectives and double adjectivation. Indefinite pronouns lent a sense of universality to his poems. He incorporated place names with spatial and cultural significance. Hyperbaton slowed the pace of his poems. Enumerations, comparisons, and imagery with Mediterranean references were common features. He also drew on cinematic references to contrast with everyday life. Irony, satire, and parody were recurring elements.

Literary References: Estellés’s work shows influences from Greco-Roman classics like Horace, Virgil, and Ovid, as well as Catalan poets like Joan Salvat-Papasseit, Salvador Espriu, and Martí i Pol. He also drew inspiration from medieval figures like Ramon Llull and Jordi de Sant Jordi, and from other poets like Pablo Neruda. His poetry is characterized by its literary and human commitment, unflinchingly addressing social realities and embracing the full spectrum of language.

Joan Oliver (Pere Quart) (1899-1986): Social Critic and Satirist

Early Life and Political Engagement

Joan Oliver, who wrote under the pseudonym Pere Quart, came from a wealthy background in Sabadell. He adopted a rebellious and revolutionary stance against established powers and bourgeois values, challenging the very social class to which he belonged. His early poem “Les decapitacions” (1934) showcased his social critique and innovative style. During the Civil War, he sided with the Republican government, taking an anti-fascist, revolutionary, and nationalist position. After the war, he went into exile in France and later Chile, collaborating with exile journals. Upon returning to Catalonia, he was imprisoned for two and a half months. In 1955, he became the director of the “Els Llibres de l’Escorpí” collection. His 1960 publication, Vacances pagades, brought him literary recognition.

Oliver’s Literary Style

Oliver’s literature is characterized by skepticism, sarcasm, irony, iconoclasm, and militancy. He adopted a critical stance, challenging the prevailing secrecy in Catalan poetry of the time. His work aimed to be morally instructive and historically conscious, driven by a strong desire to communicate.

Characteristics of Oliver’s Language:

  • Rejection of rhetoric
  • Use of free verse
  • Colloquial and even vulgar language
  • Syntactic structures resembling prose
  • Use of simple rhetorical devices
  • Prevalence of nouns over adjectives
  • Frequent use of translations for satirical or ironic effect

Themes in Oliver’s Poetry:

  • Critique of the bourgeoisie
  • Historical consciousness
  • Religious reflections, often portraying Jesus as a revolutionary figure
  • Parodied biblical episodes
  • Reflections on the role of the poet (often through parody)

Three Stages of Oliver’s Literary Career:

  1. Pre-War: Tragèdia a Lil·liput (1928) and Les decapitacions (1934) exemplify his social criticism and ironic humor.
  2. Civil War: Oda a Barcelona (1936) and the play La fam (1938) reflect the wartime experience.
  3. Post-War: Saló de tardor (1947) and Terra de naufragis (1956) mark his return to publishing. His later poems explore religious themes, reflections on the poet’s role, and political critique. He continued his sharp criticism of reality and introduced the theme of death.

Joan Oliver’s “Allò que tal vegada s’esdevingué”: An Analysis

Plot and Characters

“Allò que tal vegada s’esdevingué” is a significant work from Oliver’s early period. It features complex characters and exists in two versions. The plot revolves around Jehovah’s prohibition against humans entering the Garden of Eden after Adam and Eve’s expulsion. Cain, the main character, is drawn to the forbidden garden and desires the pear that his sister Nara wants. Cain fails to obtain it, and angels retrieve the pear. Adam gives Nara to Abel, leading to Cain’s jealousy and the murder of Abel.

Characters:

  • Cain: Represents individuality and creativity. He is an artist and inventor, capable of reasoning and defying imposed rules. He embodies human desires and embodies the archetype of the rebel.
  • Abel: Cain’s foil, portrayed as weak, jealous, cowardly, and effeminate.
  • Adam and Eve: Conformist figures resigned to their fate. Eve is hardworking and understanding, while Adam is lazy, weak, and selfish, benefiting from Cain’s labor.
  • Nara: Cain and Abel’s sister, depicted as beautiful, whimsical, simple, and carefree. She becomes the object of her brothers’ rivalry.
  • Cherub: Represents a state of vulnerability, easily tempted towards evil. Neither angel nor human, the Cherub is a complex figure aligned with Cain.
  • Devil: Characterized by excessive eloquence, false kindness, and manipulative charm. Represents deception and temptation, approaching Eve and Cain.
  • Jehovah: A disembodied voice representing supreme authority, issuing prohibitions, commands, threats, and punishments. Adam and Cain resist his orders.

Structure and Theatrical Techniques

The play consists of a single act, focusing on Cain’s rebellion. The structure follows Cain’s development, building towards a climax. Oliver employs simple sets and provides stage directions for the characters’ physical appearance. Special effects like thunder and lightning are used. The play lacks traditional scene divisions, relying on pauses to indicate shifts in action and attitudes. The events unfold over a single day, from the morning before the murder to the following night. Not all events occur on stage.

Themes

The play explores themes of authoritarianism, the biblical myth, and the critique of conformism. Paternal authority and divine commands represent authoritarianism. The use of the biblical myth provides a framework for social critique. Oliver criticizes bourgeois family relationships, portraying the head of the household as a negative figure. Cain’s nonconformity challenges societal norms.

Comedy and Humor

The play incorporates elements of bourgeois comedy, adapting the conventions of that genre to critique bourgeois values. It features characters and settings typical of bourgeois families, exploring conflicts that are often resolved happily. The characters’ weaknesses and flaws are exposed, creating humorous moments. Oliver’s verbal wit shines through, demonstrating his mastery of language.

Language

Oliver strives for clarity and transparency in his language, avoiding both vulgarity and excessive complexity. He combines a rich literary language with elements of colloquial speech, making the play accessible to a wider audience. The characters use clear and understandable language. Dialogue is fast-paced, with short phrases, questions, exclamations, and colloquialisms. The play incorporates insults and vivid expressions, creating a dynamic and engaging linguistic landscape.