Catalan Literature of the Modern Age
The Modern Age (fifteenth century):
General Characteristics:
- The political arena: powerful monarchies and authoritarian states were implanted.
- Science: the experimental method was applied, producing progress in all fields of scientific research and leading to technical advances.
- Thought: reason prevailed, fostering a critical anthropocentric vision of the universe and new social and political values.
- Spirituality: increasing skepticism led to religious conflict between Protestants and Catholic reformers.
- Art: classical ideals of beauty triumphed.
The Modern Age in Catalan-Speaking Areas:
Social, economic, and cultural development in Catalan-speaking territories lagged behind other major areas, relegating modern Catalan culture to the background.
- Population decline: Catalonia did not recover from the Black Death, and Valencia lost over a quarter of its population due to the expulsion of the Moors.
- Underdeveloped economy: wars and banditry resulted in a subsistence economy.
- Unfavorable political situation: the dynastic union subjected Catalonia to Spanish laws.
- Shortage of cultural patronage: the disappearance of the royal court left the country without the economic means to consolidate a modern Catalan culture.
- Language decline: Spanish was imposed as the official language.
Serious Literature in the Modern Age:
Renaissance (XV and XVI centuries; began in Florence in the 14th century): The idea of “rebirth” involved restoring classical ideals and breaking with the past, aiming to link antiquity and modernity. Renaissance art became more realistic and human-centered. Literature employed classical themes:
- Locus amoenus (description of an idealized landscape)
- Carpe diem (seizing the moment)
- Beatus ille (praise of a quiet life)
Poetry included the idyll (expression of love in an idyllic setting) and the elegy (melancholy song), using the sonnet form. Notable poets were Garcilaso de la Vega (Spain) and Pierre Ronsard (France). Prose saw the rise of the essay and dialogue. Important thinkers included Erasmus of Rotterdam (Netherlands) and Niccolò Machiavelli (Italy).
Catalan Renaissance Poetry (Pere Serafí)
Petrarquism, idealizing love, nature, and classical myths, flourished. The sonnet and Italian decasyllable verse were consolidated. Pere Serafí, the most important Catalan poet of the 16th century, represents this petrarquism, blending ancient and modern elements.
Catalan Renaissance Prose (Cristòfor Despuig)
Dialogue was important, as seen in Cristòfor Despuig’s Colloquia of the Famous City of Tortosa, where characters discuss cultural and political issues. Despuig defended Catalan history, language, and culture, criticizing Castile.
Catalan Renaissance Theater (Joan Francesc de Heredia)
A new civilian drama emerged, performed in universities and aristocratic courts. These plays reflected aristocratic atmosphere and diglossia, using Catalan for domestic scenes and Spanish for matters of state. Joan Francesc de Heredia’s La vesita satirizes social hypocrisy and uses Catalan, Spanish, and Portuguese.
Baroque (17th Century): This movement, prevalent in Europe and Spain, emerged during political, religious, economic, and cultural crises. Baroque art and literature masked harsh realities with artifice and embellishment, using parody, caricature, and satire. Artists sought to impress audiences; opera and ballet were born.
Miguel de Cervantes (Don Quixote) and William Shakespeare (author of extraordinary dramatic poetry) were important figures. Castilian literature (poetry and drama) flourished, with Luis de Góngora and Francisco Quevedo as poets, and Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderón de la Barca as playwrights. French classicism influenced drama (differentiation of genres, three unities, propriety, and poetic utility), with playwrights such as Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, and Molière.
Catalan Baroque Poetry (Francesc Vicent Garcia)
Many Catalan writers imitated Castilian Baroque models. Francesc Vicent Garcia, Rector of Vallfogona, wrote diverse works characterized by rhetorical artifice, following in the footsteps of Francisco Quevedo. His poems often praise female beauty.
Catalan Baroque Prose (Josep Romeguera)
Josep Romeguera’s Universitat de la grandesa contains fourteen moral or philosophical reflections, using an allegorical and artificial style.
Catalan Baroque Theater (Francesc Fontanella)
The Baroque promoted comedy and spectacular plays. Francesc Fontanella, the most innovative Catalan Baroque playwright, wrote Pastoral tragicomedy of love, and firmesa porfa, a verse play with a mythological farce.
The Enlightenment and Neoclassicism (18th Century): The Enlightenment was a rationalist movement seeking a comprehensive understanding of knowledge, producing the encyclopedia. It emphasized freedom, tolerance, and social progress, and the separation of powers. Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire were representative thinkers. Neoclassicism consolidated Enlightenment ideals and classical forms. The novel gained popularity in England, with Daniel Defoe (Robinson Crusoe) and Jonathan Swift (Gulliver’s Travels).
Catalan Enlightenment Prose (Baldiri Reixac and Rafael d’Amat)
Baldiri Reixac’s Guidelines for the Teaching of Boys was a crucial work in pedagogy, advocating for the mother tongue and other progressive ideas. Rafael d’Amat’s Catch offers a documentary perspective from a wealthy aristocrat.
Catalan Neoclassical Theater (Joan Ramis)
French neoclassical theater was translated and adapted in Catalonia and Minorca. Joan Ramis was the most important Catalan neoclassical playwright. His Lucretia emphasizes emotional restraint, ethics, and good taste, advocating honesty, freedom, and the common good.
Popular Literature During the Modern Age:
Popular literature (anonymous, oral transmission) thrived. 19th-century writers and philologists collected Catalan romances, songs, ballads, legends, and tales. The legend of Count Arnau, a song about a cruel nobleman punished for his sins, is an example. Catalan romances included diverse songs and poems on love, thievery, Christmas, etc. Popular love songs explored themes of loyalty, impossible love, infidelity, and unhappy marriages.
Popular Theater:
The Church promoted religious drama for major festivals, with a didactic purpose. Examples include The Song of the Sibyl and The Mystery of Elche. Profane popular theater included farces and comic sketches performed in public spaces, focusing on stereotypical characters and aiming for entertainment.