Catalanism and the Failure of the Restoration in Spain (1833-1931)
The Origins and Consolidation of Catalanism (1833-1901)
The Renaissance (1830s)
The Renaissance was a cultural and literary movement that emerged around the 1830s. Its purpose was the revival of the Catalan language and cultural identity. It lacked political aspirations and projects.
The Cultural and Literary Revival
At the beginning of the 19th century, there was a decline in the use of Catalan. The language was confined to everyday speech and was not used in cultural or literary contexts.
The publication of the magazine “La Renaixença” marked the beginning of the Catalan Renaissance. The language became a symbol of a movement that focused on raising awareness of the need to preserve and promote Catalan language and culture.
In 1859, the Floral Games were established as a platform to restore and preserve the Catalan language and literature. They contributed to the social acceptance of Catalan as a language of prestige and culture.
The revival also involved an investigation into the roots of Catalan identity.
The Popular Revival
Parallel to the cultural movement, a popular movement developed, often in opposition to the more elite cultural revival. The working classes had always used Catalan as a language of oral communication. Supporters of this popular movement criticized the focus on a “pure” Catalan, advocating for the use of a language that reflected the way it was spoken by the people.
The origins of Catalan nationalism as a political movement can be traced back to a series of popular movements protesting against the new liberal state.
The First Popular Revolts (1835-1843)
The establishment of the new liberal state led to centralization, justified as necessary to strengthen the state. The first signs of opposition were expressions of Catalan particularism, which were popular movements between 1835 and 1843. These movements led to the formation of revolutionary boards. Some of these insurrections were known as “bullangues”. These popular movements protested against the consolidation of the liberal state and the beginnings of industrialization. They demanded decentralization of the state and expressed Catalan particularism and anti-centralist sentiment.
Federalism (1868-74)
Federalism was a significant political doctrine during the Sexenio Revolucionario (1868-74), particularly in Catalonia, where it gained support from the radical petty bourgeoisie and industrial workers. The Federal Democratic Republican Party became the main vehicle for promoting federalist ideas. They advocated for a new way of organizing the Spanish state that involved the distribution of powers.
Francesc Pi i Margall was the main inspiration for this federal republicanism. Notable Catalan federal republicans included Valentí Almirall, who, along with others, promoted the 1869 Pact of Tortosa, a republican convention where various federal committees agreed to build a Spanish federation.
Almirall played a key role in Catalan federal republicanism. His thought revolved around the belief that the modernization of Spain could only be achieved through the implementation of a federal republic. This republic would contribute to the political regeneration of Spain.
Valentí Almirall and the Centre Català
Valentí Almirall was a key figure in the transition from federalism to Catalanism. He created a specifically Catalan political organization, the Centre Català. His political thought was collected in “Lo Catalanisme,” which laid the foundations of Catalan progressive ideology. He believed that Catalonia was an element of progress in Spain.
The Centre Català convened the First Catalanist Congress (1880), which brought together federalists and the more literary-focused Republican current. It also led to the creation of the Catalan Language Academy and the Centre Català, an interclass association defending the interests of Catalonia.
The Centre Català also convened the Second Catalanist Congress (1883), which was important in shaping Catalan politics. The Congress remained unfinished due to economic conditions and political differences between various Catalan sectors, despite reaching agreements on specific issues such as the defense of protectionism and Catalan law.
The Memorial de Greuges (1885)
In 1885, the Centre Català held a rally where Almirall attempted to gain the support of the Catalan bourgeoisie. The meeting resulted in the drafting of a manifesto known as the Memorial de Greuges, which outlined the reasons why Catalonia felt aggrieved. It denounced the oppression of the centralist regime over Catalonia and made demands in defense of protectionism and Catalan civil law. It is considered the first unified Catalan political manifesto.
The Failure of Almirall’s Project
Almirall’s project proved unfeasible. It was seen as too republican and failed to gain popular support. The Centre Català disappeared in the mid-1890s.
A new generation of intellectuals (e.g., Enric Prat de la Riba) founded the Lliga de Catalunya in 1887. They advocated for the defense of Catalan civil law, protectionism, and the implementation of policies exclusively for Catalonia. One of their first initiatives was a message to the Queen Regent.
Traditionalist Catalanism: Torras i Bages
Catalanism also defended the need for decentralization of the Spanish state from a more conservative perspective. During the Restoration, part of the clergy sought a space within conservatism, distinct from liberalism. Vigatanisme was a cultural and intellectual movement that fostered Catalan identity among members of religious institutions.
Torras i Bages, the Bishop of Vic, defended a Catalanism rooted in Christian values. He wanted to create a conservative Catholic alternative to the lay Catalanism of the Lliga.
The Unió Catalanista and the Bases de Manresa (1892)
The Unió Catalanista aimed to be a federation of all Catalanist groups, centers, and publications. Its objectives were to spread regionalist ideas and create a common program for all Catalan nationalist groups. The Bases de Manresa, a set of theses on Catalan regionalism, emerged from the Unió Catalanista.
The Bases de Manresa proposed a division of powers between a federal central power and a regional Catalan power. They defended full sovereignty for Catalonia, proclaimed Catalan as the official language, and stipulated that public office in Catalonia could only be held by Catalans. They also proposed the restoration of old Catalan institutions.
The “Four Presidents” Candidacy (1901)
Leaders of economic corporations and citizens of Catalonia decided to form a political group: the Unió Regionalista. Their program called for political and administrative autonomy. They organized the Centre Nacional Català (1900, with Prat de la Riba among others). In April 1901, they reached an agreement to present a single candidacy for the May elections. The “Four Presidents” candidacy, headed by Albert Rusiñol, Bartomeu Robert, Lluís Domènech i Montaner, and Sebastià Torres, won a resounding victory, demonstrating the strength of Catalanism.
The Foundation of the Lliga Regionalista (1901)
The Lliga Regionalista became the dominant force in Catalan politics. Catalonia became a battleground between Republicans and Catalanists. The Lliga can be considered the first modern political party in Spain, with an effective organization and skillful reformist tactics. It had strong influence among industrialists, merchants, and professionals in Barcelona.
The Failure of the Restoration System (1902-1931)
With the accession of Alfonso XIII to the throne, the second phase of the Restoration began. Two forces, Catalanism and republicanism, became the main players in the political game.
Dynastic Reformism
With Antonio Maura and José Canalejas, a new generation of politicians influenced by Regenerationism came to power. However, Regenerationism was not a successful model due to electoral fraud and caciquismo. Maura’s government launched a “revolution from above,” attempting to change the system from within. They sought to dismantle the old caciquil system and introduced the Electoral Reform Act (1907). Maura also drafted a reform of local administration. Eduardo Dato replaced him as the new Conservative leader.
José Canalejas formed a new Conservative government in 1910. His social policy focused on replacing the unpopular consumption tax with a progressive tax reform and the Ley del Candado (which limited the establishment of new religious orders). He also initiated the Law of Commonwealths (Mancomunidades), which allowed provinces to join together.
Catalanism: The Lliga Regionalista
The general strike of 1902 highlighted the conservative bourgeois character of the Lliga. Internal ideological discrepancies emerged. The crisis following King Alfonso XIII’s visit to Barcelona led to the formation of the Centre Nacionalista Republicà, a new party that defined itself as nationalist, republican, and democratic. This caused a split in the Lliga, with some members moving towards federal republicanism. The Lliga also emerged as a nationalist party demanding self-government. They wanted the state to decentralize and democratize political life.
Lerrouxist Republicanism
Alejandro Lerroux, a journalist and politician, presented a radical and democratic discourse with a revolutionary and anti-clerical character. He presented himself as a Spanish nationalist and achieved electoral success, gaining support from the working class. He used techniques of propaganda and mass politics, organizing “fraternal snacks” (aperitius fraternals), which were meetings of supporters where he presented himself as one of them. He founded the Radical Republican Party.
Solidaritat Catalana (1906)
Solidaritat Catalana was the first major alliance of Catalan political forces. It was formed in reaction to the anti-Catalan policies of the Liberal governments in Madrid, particularly their opposition to the draft Law of Jurisdictions (Llei de Jurisdiccions), which aimed to limit the power of military courts in civilian cases. The massive rejection of the law led to the formation of Solidaritat Catalana, an electoral coalition that brought together all Catalan forces except the Lerrouxists and the dynastic parties. They advocated for the repeal of the Law of Jurisdictions and the need to grant Catalonia self-government. Solidaritat Catalana achieved a great electoral victory.
The Crisis of Solidaritat Catalana
Solidaritat Catalana was an alliance of diverse parties with inherent contradictions. The first element of discord was Maura’s Draft Law of Local Administration. The more moderate members of Solidaritat wanted to negotiate decentralization with Madrid, while the left wing wanted to implement a more radical program in Barcelona, including the introduction of Catalan in schools and religious neutrality. The events of the Tragic Week ultimately led to the dissolution of Solidaritat Catalana.
Colonial Policy and the War in Morocco
In 1909, there was a violent popular protest with an anti-militarist and anti-clerical character, fueled by the painful memory of the war in Cuba.
The Algeciras Conference and the Franco-Spanish Treaty of 1904 established a French protectorate in Morocco. Spain’s penetration into the Rif region was driven by economic interests. The Maura government decided to increase the number of Spanish soldiers in the Rif, leading to significant popular protests.
The Tragic Week in Barcelona (1909)
The popular mobilization against the war began in Barcelona. A strike committee, composed of Republicans, Socialists, and Anarchists, called for a general strike. The popular initiative went beyond the control of the organizers and became a spontaneous outburst of accumulated tension. Anti-clericalism led to the burning of churches and convents. A state of war was declared, and the subsequent repression was very harsh. Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia, an educator and anarchist who promoted the Modern School, was accused of being the ideological inspiration behind the events and was executed, despite a lack of evidence.