Catalonia’s Fall and the Spanish Civil War’s End
Catalonia: The Fall and the End of the War
On December 23, 1938, the “Nationalist” army launched an offensive on Catalonia. Republican forces, lacking Russian weapons and materials due to constant bombardment of ports by Italian aircraft and ships, could hardly resist. The Catalan capital fell within weeks. The Republican government sought refuge in Girona and later exile. On February 5, a massive number of combatants and civilians crossed the border, including Azaña, Martínez Barrio, and Negrín (the latter would return to await Franco’s troops’ entry into Madrid). After Catalonia’s fall, Madrid became the site of a civil confrontation within the Republic, with the dilemma of fighting or negotiating surrender.
On March 5, 1939, General Casado staged a coup against Negrín, forming a National Defence Council and ordering the arrest and execution of communists and military personnel associated with Negrín, who had to flee Spain. Franco demanded unconditional surrender, rejecting negotiations. His troops entered Madrid on March 28, 1939, and other Republican strongholds subsequently fell. On April 1, 1939, General Francisco Franco signed the final war dispatch: “Today, captive and disarmed, the Red Army troops have reached their final national military objectives.”
3.2.1 – The Republican Side: Revolution and Resistance
At the first news of the uprising in Morocco, the government led by Casares Quiroga attempted to reassure the public. Workers took up arms in cities and towns. Casares resigned on the 18th, and Azaña appointed Diego Martínez Barrio, who tried to negotiate with the rebels but failed. A new government headed by José Giral distributed arms to Popular Front organizations and labor unions. Where the uprising was defeated, it was due to the strength of the armed working class and the loyalty of the police, civil guard, and assault guards, who overcame the rebel garrisons. This situation led to a revolutionary response to the military uprising. The political, military, judicial, and economic order was disrupted. The Republican revolutionary transformation varied in intensity across regions. In Madrid, dominated by the UGT, and Valencia, the seat of government, changes were minor. Major changes occurred in Catalonia, Aragon, and the English Channel area, with widespread collectivization of property.
The Giral government, overwhelmed by the popular revolution and the Nationalist advance from the south, resigned, giving way to a new government led by Francisco Largo Caballero, a Socialist from the UGT. This government included Socialists, Communists, Republicans, Catalans, Basques, and members of the CNT. Its main objective was to restore government authority and state unity. Military success was achieved with the defense of Madrid, although it was attributed to the Junta. The new government faced internal divisions between Communists and Anarchists. The Communist Party’s influence grew because the Soviet Union, led by Stalin, was the only country aiding the Republic. Largo Caballero was caught in the middle of clashes between Anarchists and Communists. After the May Events, two Communist ministers left the government due to dissatisfaction with military policy and opposition to the dissolution of the POUM. Largo Caballero resigned.
A new government, headed by Juan Negrín, excluded the Anarchists and the UGT, breaking the unity of action. This government implemented policies advocated by the Communists with the support of Socialists, Republicans, and Basque and Catalan nationalists. Negrín personified the will to resist at any cost, proposing a program of minimum conditions known as “the thirteen points.” The President of the Republic, Azaña, became increasingly anti-Negrín. After the loss of Catalonia, the French and British governments officially recognized Franco (February 27, 1939), leading to Manuel Azaña’s resignation. Any negotiation with Franco meant unconditional surrender. On March 5, 1939, a coup deposed Negrín, forming a National Defense Council representing Socialists, Anarchists, and Republicans who disagreed with the Communists. The Defense Council’s negotiations with Franco for a surrender without retaliation failed. Franco declared victory on March 31, and on April 1, the Permanent Delegation of the Parliament met in Paris, marking the beginning of the Republic in exile.
3.2.2 – The Nationalist Faction
Within Franco’s faction, there were also opposing currents, but he harnessed the driving forces: Catholic sentiment and anti-revolutionary fervor were decisive factors uniting disparate parties. Once the military controlled various locations, political leadership was assumed on July 24 by a General Board meeting in Burgos, known as the National Defense Council, chaired by General Cabanellas. The death of the conspiracy’s leader disrupted plans, and two figures emerged: General Mola, director of the conspiracy and head of the Northern Army, and General Franco, head of the Southern Army. Franco immediately initiated a counter-social revolution, undoing the Republic’s modernizing project.
General Franco capitalized on several conditions to attain supreme authority, both political and military:
- He secured help from Hitler and Mussolini.
- His advance towards Madrid was faster and more spectacular than Mola’s.
- He aided the rebel refugees in the Alcázar of Toledo, turning it into a propaganda coup to impress the Burgos Board, which recognized him as the highest military authority, Generalissimo of the Army, and Head of State.
On October 1, the National Defense Council was replaced by the Junta Técnica del Estado, transferring the seat of power to Salamanca to strengthen Franco’s leadership. Franco adopted the title Caudillo, while propaganda spread the slogan “One country, one state, one leader.” Another crucial aspect was the Catholic Church’s favorable stance towards the Nationalists, leading the vast majority of Catholic Spain to align against the Republic and perceive the war as a crusade. Politically, some problems persisted. The situation favored far-right parties: Alfonsine monarchists, Carlists, and Falangists. Serious internal dissent within this camp culminated in April with the Unification Decree, creating a single party later called the National Movement. This united the two major parties of the rebellion: the Carlists and the Falange. Unification was completed in the following months with decrees establishing the Statutes of the Movement, creating the Spanish University Union and the Women’s Social Service, and appointing members of the National Council and other agencies of the single party.