Causes and Events of World War II: A Comprehensive Overview
1. International Relations Before the War
The Causes of Change
- Economic Crisis: The 1929 depression drove states towards protectionism and competition for markets.
- Rise of Totalitarianism: Increased suspicion among nations due to totalitarian regimes ignoring peace treaties and causing conflicts.
- League of Nations’ Inability: The League failed to enforce peace, overtaken by the scale of events.
- Weakening of Democracies: Democratic governments focused on domestic affairs, leading to indifference towards totalitarian expansionism.
2. The Steps Towards War
The Invasion of China by Japan
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria and created the protectorate of Manchukuo. Despite international pressure and the Lytton Commission, Japan continued its expansion, leaving the League of Nations in 1933. In 1937, Japan invaded China, marking a significant precursor to World War II.
Italian Conquests
Exploiting European tolerance, Mussolini expanded Italian possessions in 1936, invading Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Despite sanctions, Italy occupied the African state. Britain, concerned about Mediterranean ambitions, cooled relations, leading Italy to align with Germany. The Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) and Italy’s adherence to the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937) solidified this alliance.
The Spanish Civil War
On July 18, 1936, a coup against the Spanish Republic sparked a civil war. Germany and Italy supported the rebels, while the Republic received limited Soviet aid due to non-intervention by the UK and France. The war, ending in 1939, served as a testing ground for new tactics and weapons, foreshadowing the larger conflict.
German Expansionism
Hitler’s Nazi regime challenged the Treaty of Versailles through re-militarization of the Rhineland and annexation of Austria (1938). The Munich Conference allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland, but in 1939, Germany occupied Czechoslovakia. The German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (August 1939) divided Poland, leading to the invasion of Poland and declarations of war by Britain and France.
3. The War
Total War: General Features
- Total resource utilization and industrial capacity decided the outcome.
- High mobility warfare replaced trench warfare.
- Demanded total population mobilization.
- Massive civilian casualties due to aerial bombing.
- Unconditional surrender increased destruction.
The Western Front
Germany’s blitzkrieg tactics led to the occupation of Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. The UK evacuated troops but lost material. France was divided; the north under German rule, the south under the Vichy regime. The Battle of Britain (1940) saw the Luftwaffe fail to subdue the RAF and a German naval blockade was countered by US supplies to Britain.
Mediterranean and North Africa
The UK faced Italian attacks in Greece, but Germany intervened, invading Yugoslavia and Croatia, driving the British from Greece. Rommel’s Afrika Korps advanced in North Africa until halted by Montgomery at El Alamein in 1942.
The Eastern Front
In 1941, Operation Barbarossa saw 3.5 million Axis troops invade the USSR. The German advance reached Leningrad, resulting in a siege and immense civilian casualties, and stalled near Moscow due to winter conditions.
The War in the Pacific
Japan, controlling China and French Indochina, saw the US as an obstacle. The attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) brought the US into the war. Japan invaded European colonies in Asia, but US victories at Midway and Guadalcanal marked a turning point. The US’s vast resources proved decisive in both the Pacific and European theaters.