Causes of Reformation and the Counter-Reformation in 16th Century Europe
Causes of Reformation
PUNRO 6 THE CAUSES OF REFORMATION: was a religious movement in 16th century Europe. It grew out of widespread criticism of the Catholic Church:
- the higher clergy usually come from noble families and lived a life of luxury, at the same time parish priests were often undeclared and did not carry out their pastoral work.
- Indulgences were issued by the pope. These documents pardoned people their sins in return for money.
- Printing meant that more copies of the Bible were in circulation. Under humanist influence, people became more critical of spiritual authority and wanted religion to reflect their personal reading of the Bible.
Lutheran Reformation
In 1517, the German monk Martin Luther published the 95 theses. This document strongly criticized the pope and clerical corruption. Luther was excommunicated by the pope, and his followers left the Catholic church. According to Luther:
- people are saved by their faith and not by their works
- Christians can reach God directly through prayer, and can freely read the Bible, do not require the mediations of priests
- the only true sacraments are baptism and the Eucharist
- the cult of the Virgin and the saints should be suppressed
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was a reform movement within the Catholic church. It was aimed at both improving conditions in the church and resisting Protestantism. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) adopted a series of resolutions:
- it confirmed the authority of the pope, it also confirmed the church’s traditional doctrine: the seven sacraments, the cult of the Virgin and the saints, and the validity of good works in achieving salvation.
- it also reformed some practices. It prohibited the sale of indulgences and established seminaries to train priests. Norms were laid down to discourage bad behavior on the part of the clergy and encourage good morals.
- seminaries were created to improve the clergy education and bishops were ordered to live in their diocese, new ways to spreading the Catholic doctrine were the catechism and creation of schools.
Religious Orders
The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignacio de Loyola and its members helped to spread the ideas of the Counter-Reformation. Other religious orders were reformed like the Carmelites under Saint Teresa de Jesus.
Architecture
Following Ancient Greek and Roman models, they looked for symmetry and proportion. They made use of classical features such as rounded arches, pediments, barrel vaulting, domes, and columns.
The High Renaissance
The cultural movement of the 16th century is known as the High Renaissance (or Cinquecento). Under the patronage of the Popes, Rome became a key centre of influence. Italy’s greatest architects and artists, for example Donato Bramante and Michelangelo, worked on Saint Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican. Andrea Palladio designed small palaces in the countryside, like the Villa Rotonda near Vicenza.
Sculpture
High Renaissance sculpture was large scale and monumental. Michelangelo Buonarroti was the outstanding sculptor. His David, Moses, and the Pietá were among his masterpieces.
Painting
Leonardo da Vinci made numerous contributions to mechanics. He is responsible for inventions such as gears, propellers, windmills, the flying machine, the glider, the crane, the tank, and the warship. He also carried out research in the fields of anatomy, astronomy, and botany.