Cellular Processes: Glycolysis, Fermentation, and Microscopy
Cellular Processes and Microscopy
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm. Fermentation produces CO₂. An enzyme has 4 subunits and requires an iron ion. Brownian movement is the random, zigzag motion of tiny particles suspended in a liquid or gas, caused by collisions with fast-moving molecules. White Cloud is a salt. A parfocal microscope keeps the specimen in focus when changing objective lenses. When you move the slide left, the image appears to move right. A compound microscope inverts the image. The condenser focuses light on the specimen. The iris diaphragm controls the amount of light passing through. Diffusion is a passive process where particles move from high to low concentration due to their kinetic energy. Total magnification is calculated by multiplying the magnification by ten. As magnification increases, the field of view decreases. The diameter of the field decreases with higher magnification. Fine focus adjustment is used for high-power magnification for precise focusing. A compound microscope uses lenses to magnify objects; the ocular lens is at the top, and objective lenses are at the bottom. Light passes through the specimen and magnifying lenses to the eye. Catalase, found in peroxisomes, breaks down harmful substances.
Catalase Reaction: 2H₂O₂ → 2H₂O + O₂. Catalase is a protein enzyme with four subunits. The iron atom in the heme group helps catalase interact with hydrogen peroxide. NAD⁺ is a coenzyme that carries electrons in cellular metabolism, becoming NADH. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate in the cytoplasm, generating ATP and NADH without oxygen. A substrate is a reactant molecule that an enzyme acts upon. A cofactor is a non-protein compound required by an enzyme. Enzymes have an optimal pH; activity decreases if the pH is too low or too high. Glucose is a simple monosaccharide, the primary substrate for fermentation. Fermentation uses glucose directly, making it the fastest to ferment. Maltose, a disaccharide, must be broken down into glucose by maltase before fermentation. Starch, a complex polysaccharide, must be broken down into maltose and then glucose by enzymes like amylase and maltase before fermentation. Fluorides are considered poisons because they disrupt biological processes.
A controlled experiment changes only one variable at a time, with a control group for comparison. Monomers are small units that form larger polymers. Glucose is a monomer of polysaccharides, amino acids are monomers of proteins, and nucleotides are monomers of nucleic acids. Controls in biochemical testing ensure reliability. Biuret Test: Positive result for proteins is violet/purple. Sudan IV Test: Positive result for lipids is red droplets. Phosphate buffers resist pH changes by neutralizing acids or bases. Starch + Water → Glucose (or Maltose) with HCL, distilled water, and heat.
Light-dependent Reactions occur in thylakoid membranes, using water and sunlight to produce oxygen, ATP, and NADPH. The Calvin Cycle occurs in the stroma, using carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH to produce glucose. Cytokinesis in animals involves a cleavage furrow, while in plants, it involves a cell plate. Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light. The S Phase is where DNA replication occurs. Metaphase is where chromosomes align at the cell’s equator. Accessory Pigments capture light energy at wavelengths that chlorophyll cannot absorb. Asexual reproduction allows plants to rapidly produce genetically identical offspring. Yeast Fermentation is also known as Alcoholic fermentation: C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂ + Energy (ATP). Muscle Fermentation is also known as Lactic acid fermentation: C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₃H₆O₃ + Energy.